Montana Wildlife Research: Projects, Research Publications, Presentations, Thesis and Dissertations, Technical Publications

Montana Wildlife Research Activities

Mother grizzly at Yellowstone National Park. Credit: Frank van Manen

Much of the Unit research effort from 1970 through the present focused on interactions of predators with both wild and domestic prey species. During a decade when considerable public and scientific opinion held that predators seldom killed healthy wild ungulates or livestock, Unit studies initiated in the 1970�s helped to form the more realistic and useful viewpoint that is still evolving today. Serious economic losses of sheep and lambs to coyotes and golden eagles were documented in several Unit studies, and one study involved developing effective techniques for preventing depredation on lambs and kids by golden eagles. Continuing work on predator-prey interactions has involved demographic effects and life-history tradeoffs involved in nest predation on birds, both game and nongame species, as influenced by altered communities of generalist nest predators, habitat degradation and fragmentation, and other environmental perturbations.

Projects

Project	Completion Date
Moose demography in NE Washington	June 2017	Document survival rates of adult moose cows and calves for input into statistical reconstruction models, demographic projection models, and allowable harvest models. Test whether survival rates of adult cows and calves differ in areas of high vs. low wolf density, older vs. young forest age structure, and other habitat characteristics quantifiable using remote sensing.	None
NCDE Grizzly Bear Demographics	June 2015	Analyses of grizzly bear demographics and habitat use in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE). These analyses will be conducted in close collaboration with state research biologists.	None
Greater Sage-Grouse Grazing Evaluation	October 2014	This study is assessing biological responses of vegetation, radio-marked females and chicks, and lek count indices to large-scale grazing treatments.	None
Effects of climate and habitat change on structure and function of a high priority montane ecosystem	March 2017	This research continues and extends long-term (29 years) study of climate effects on a human-natural ecosystem classified by the IPCC as a high priority and vulnerable ecosystem: a montane riparian system in the arid southwest. We are examining the causal mechanisms underlying change in ecosystem structure (species composition) and function (trophic interactions) in response to climate variation and elk browsing. The research includes estimation of the relative sensitivity of vegetation, bird, and mammal species to climate variation in order to project future responses and possible management alternatives. No other study in the world has annually detailed long-term population trajectories and demographic processes of such a full array of plant, bird, and small mammal species comprising an ecosystem to allow examination of climate influences on ecosystem structure and function	None
Research to inform Chronic Wasting Disease management in Montana	May 2012	All available deer survey, distribution and movement data have been collected from statewide and regional FWP offices. All deer survey data was recently synthesized into a single database while deer distribution and movement data are currently being intersected with covariates such as temperature, precipitation, land cover, NDVI, elevation and distance to road using ArcGIS Desktop 10. Data extraction of deer distribution and movement data were completed in April 2012.	None
Proactive management of disease outbreak in bighorn sheep in Montana	June 2013	Collaborate with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks Health Lab and other FWP managers and biologists to design a model to predict relative risk of pneumonia outbreak for bighorn herds and to design a decision model to aid bighorn managers in making appropriate proactive decisions based on each herd's estimated risk of pneumonia outbreak. In addition to aiding biologists in managing risk and occurrence of bighorn pneumonia epizootics and best allocating limited resources, the goal of this project is to create a case study for wildlife management agencies in the development and application of risk and decision models for statewide, proactive programs for managing wildlife health.	None
Linking resource selection and mortality modeling for population estimation of mounain lions in Montana	September 2011	Produce spatially explicit models of mountain lion resource selection, survival, densities, and population dynamics. This research will be directed towards aiding MTFWP personnel in developing local harvest strategies and a statewide mountain lion management plan.	None
An assessment of factors influencing territory size and the use of hunter surveys for monitoring wolves in Montana	June 2011	Evaluate whether a multi-season patch occupancy model could be used to accurately estimate the abundance and distribution of wolf packs in Montana from 2007-2009.	None
Investiage survival and recruitment of white-tailed deer in Northeast Washington - Graduate student support	June 2014	Use survival as a measure of habitat quality and link portions of the landscape that have a high probability of use with area specific survival rates.	None
Western elk research collaboration	April 2015	Across 7 states in the NW United States the overall objectives are to: 1) Identify and understand the factors that influence elk calf survival and cause-specific mortality; 2) assess the influence of landscape-level variation in habitat, climate, predation, and human harvest on the survival and cause-specific mortality of adult female elk;; 3) understand the potential consequences of these relationships on population growth rate under different predator, habitat, population management, and climatic scenarios; 4) use these analyses to build a set of Integrated Population Models that will help wildlife managers make informed decisions.	None
Factors influencing survival of Mountain Plover Chicks in Eastern Colorado	June 2013	Field research study will provide information on the vulnerability of Mountain Plover reproductive performance on different types of habitats with the species range. Objectives are to investigate differences in the causes of mortality of Mountain Plover chicks among different habitat types - grassland with prairie dogs, grassland without prairie dogs, and agricultural fields; to provide information to assist in developing management actions for mountain plovers on public and private lands in eastern colorado.	None
Sandhill Crane and Long-Billed Curlew Breeding season occupancy in response to habitat structure at multiple scales	May 2013	Cattle grazing is a common landuse on public land in the Intermountain West that often has varied and complex effects on wildlife. However, many previous studies of wildlife response to grazing compared grazed vs. ungrazed treatments, ignoring the dynamic nature of grazing and the many levels of grazing intensity and frequency commonly utilized. We are undertaking the current study to better understand the response of 1) small mammals to the frequency of cattle grazing in wet meadow habitats and 2) breeding season occupancy of long-billed curlews and sandhill cranes in grazed grasslands on Red Rock Lakes, NWR.	None
Understanding the influence of landscape context and conifer encroachment of aspen habitats on songbird utilization and reproductive success	May 2015	Aspen is a critical habitat for wildlife but is rare and declining habitat in general and recognized as such throughout Western North America and the inter-mountain region. We will conduct intensive (nest success) monitoring of song bird use of aspen habitats on Bair Foundation lands and adjacent Federal and private lands to identify landscape and forest conditions that enhance diversity and reproductive success of songbirds. Concurrent studies will also occur on Fish, Wildlife and Parks management areas for additional habitat comparisons. We will focus on landscape context (slope, aspect, embedded in conifer forest vs grassland, edge of conifer forest and grassland), and aspen stand configuration (patch size, aspen tree sizes, conifer component, vegetation composition/density) to identify aspen conditions that optimize bird diversity and reproductive success. We will establish about 10 study plots of about 25 acres each in aspen stands that vary in conifer encroachment, and landscape context. We will examine overall nesting success of all bird species in these aspen stands and will simultaneously examine habitat features associated with successful nesting of individual species. We will develop predictive models of habitat features at nest patch (5 m radius) and forest stand scales that enhance reproductive success. We also will examine the conditions under which aspen regeneration is enhanced. By identifying the habitat features and relative importance of aspen stands of greatest benefits to nongame birds, we can provide clear guidance for land management for prioritizing restoration and preservation efforts.	Aspen is a critical habitat for wildlife but is rare and declining habitat in general and recognized as such throughout Western North America and the inter-mountain region. We will conduct intensive (nest success) monitoring of song bird use of aspen habitats on Bair Foundation lands and adjacent Federal and private lands to identify landscape and forest conditions that enhance diversity and reproductive success of songbirds. Concurrent studies will also occur on Fish, Wildlife and Parks management areas for additional habitat comparisons. We will focus on landscape context (slope, aspect, embedded in conifer forest vs grassland, edge of conifer forest and grassland), and aspen stand configuration (patch size, aspen tree sizes, conifer component, vegetation composition/density) to identify aspen conditions that optimize bird diversity and reproductive success. We will establish about 10 study plots of about 25 acres each in aspen stands that vary in conifer encroachment, and landscape context. We will examine overall nesting success of all bird species in these aspen stands and will simultaneously examine habitat features associated with successful nesting of individual species. We will develop predictive models of habitat features at nest patch (5 m radius) and forest stand scales that enhance reproductive success. We also will examine the conditions under which aspen regeneration is enhanced. By identifying the habitat features and relative importance of aspen stands of greatest benefits to nongame birds, we can provide clear guidance for land management for prioritizing restoration and preservation efforts.
Sage Grouse Genetics	September 2016	Gain a more comprehensive understanding of greater sage-grouse genetic connectivity across Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. Use non-invasive collecting techniques, and molecular genetics monitoring tools in a landscape genetics framework.	None
Grizzly Bear Population Status in the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem	December 2015	A collaborative research project to get more information about grizzly bear status in the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem. The objectives of this project are:To conduct an extensive survey of hiking trails, forest roads, power and fence lines and other wildlife travel routes in the Cabinet -Yaak Ecosystem (CYE) to identify the location of bear rubs and establish those rubs as repeat hair collection sites;To deploy baited bear hair snagging corrals at predetermined sites throughout the CYE based on a 5 X 5 km grid with 1 hair corral per cell for each of 5 14-day detection occasions;To conduct repeat surveys of established bear rubs and hair corrals to collect bear hair samples for genetic analysis; To identify the species, sex, and individual identity of bear from the hair collected; and to perform various analyses on genetic results including, but not necessarily limited to, estimates of population abundance, distribution, gene flow and models of regional abundance patterns.	None
Adaptive management for bighorn sheep and mountain goats	May 2028	In an adaptive management framework, this project seeks to improve achievement of 2 metrics for bighorn sheep and mountain goats that were convergently identified as management priorities by MT Fish, Wildlife and Parks in separate structured decision-making processes. These metrics are 1) improving population trends, and 2) reducing risk of disease epizootics. Through an adaptive management framework, this project will increase our understanding of the effects of management actions on achieving these metrics, while reducing uncertainty about environmental drivers of population dynamics and disease risks, which will improve future management decisions about when and where to implement each action to improve the probability of success. The foundation for this work will rest in ongoing management and monitoring practices already prioritized for mountain goats and bighorn sheep, with additional emphasis placed on rigorously monitoring these response metrics in populations where such monitoring has not previously been prioritized.	None
Grand Teton Wildlife Connectivity Modeling	January 2027	The importance of large, connected landscapes to achieving sustained ecological health is increasingly apparent. Habitat loss and fragmentation are primary threats to most species facing declines and extirpations nationally and globally. The effects of habitat loss and fragmentation are exacerbated by other threats such as climate change, invasive species, disease, and over harvest. The National Park Service (NPS) requires tools and approaches to ensure protection of biodiverse areas and to facilitate daily, seasonal and life cycle movements of wildlife species both within and beyond park boundaries. This project will develop tools and approaches to inform local level management (i.e., visitor use planning, transportation planning, construction activities, etc.) while also linking to broader conservation actions across the larger landscape. Grand Teton National Park (GRTE) will serve as our pilot NPS unit. The project is a close collaboration between the MTCWRU and University of Montana, with project partners at GRTE, the NPS Biological Resources Division, and the NPS Greater Yellowstone Inventory and Monitoring Network. The project will seek to produce foundational spatial products for GRTE along with a template for how this general approach can be implemented across NPS units. Project products will be used to inform park planning and identify areas for cross-jurisdictional wildlife management and habitat conservation.	None
Montana Wolf Conservation via Management Strategy Evaluation	January 2026	We are using Management Strategy Evaluation (MSE) to help inform wolf management decisions in Montana. Wolf season setting has become complicated and controversial again. State law requires Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks to both reduce the population and avoid federal relisting. Big game advocates want to see improved big game populations and hunting opportunity, while wolf advocates feel that wolves are being persecuted under the current harvest regulations. MSE is a tool to simulate the workings of a harvested population or system. It will allow us to test whether potential management strategies can achieve pre-defined fundamental objectives. MSE considers the full range of uncertainty and helps decision-makers consider long-term trade-offs among the management objectives, instead of focusing on short-term considerations only. We are working closely with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks to inform this MSE. Through this project, we will evaluate the effects of management strategies on the ability to meet objectives for wolf management, and thereby help inform decision-making for wolf conservation in Montana.	None
Moose Habitat on the Flathead Indian Reservation	January 2028	We are investigating moose habitat on the Flathead Indian Reservation (FIR) to help inform conservation decisions. Moose population declines are evident in the area, with no conclusive evidence for the cause. Understanding factors that contribute to local declines will become increasingly important for moose conservation as ecological systems continue to change. Successful management of moose habitat in turn requires understanding how the species use their habitat. In collaboration with the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, this study aims to understand and predict moose habitat relationships. The knowledge gained by this study will help inform conservation decisions, such as where to potentially designate FIR Moose Conservation Management Areas and where and how to focus habitat management to benefit moose.	None
Effects of Forest Management and Wildfire Disturbance on Grizzly Bears	January 2029	Over past centuries, habitat loss and degradation contributed to declines of grizzly bears in the contiguous US, including in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE). The NCDE has a long history of both industrial logging and wildlife suppression. Today, due to decades of increasing fuel loads, wildfire is the dominant source of disturbance in the NCDE. The effects of wildfire and timber harvest on grizzly bears are only partially understood, and both positive and negative effects have been identified. Further research is needed to understand the effects of these disturbances on this threatened species. We are working closely on this project with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the US Forest Service, and other collaborators. Through habitat suitability modeling and movement modeling, we will investigate how grizzly bears respond to timber harvest and wildfire to better understand their effects. Our work will inform forest management practices in the Northern Rockies.	None
Predictive Modeling for Grizzly Bears in the Bitterroot Ecosystem	January 2030	Grizzly bears were extirpated across 98% of their former range in the contiguous US in recent centuries, including in the Bitterroot region of east-central Idaho and western Montana. The reestablishment of a population in the Bitterroot would contribute to the long-term persistence of grizzly bears in the contiguous US. In 2000, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) published a record of decision and final rule with a planned reintroduction for the Bitterroot, yet a reintroduction was never undertaken. Since the mid-2010s, numerous observations of grizzly bears have been documented in the region. We are working closely with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, the US Forest Service, and other collaborators to understand planning needs. To assist with recovery planning, we are using movement models and simulations to develop predictions of how grizzly bears will use habitat in this area. Our results will directly inform conservation of this species in their former range.	None
Assessing chronic wasting disease environmental prion reservoirs	August 2025	The prevalence of chronic wasting disease continues to increase endemically and spread broadly over North America. However, transmission risks and chronic wasting disease dynamics associated with environmental prion reservoirs remain poorly understood due to the lack of efficient diagnostic tools. With advances in prion assay technology (RT-QuIC), the proposed research can fill key gaps in knowledge about ecologically- and management-relevant environmental sources of CWD transmission. This project builds off previous work funded by the WI-DNR to leverage prion assay technology (real-time quaking-induced conversion; RT-QuIC) to detect chronic wasting disease prions in environmental reservoirs and considers the role of scavengers. Our aim is to 1) assess the effects of chronic wasting disease-positive carcasses and vertebrate scavengers on prion deposition and distribution in soils at deer carcass sites, and 2) quantify animal activity at deer carcass sites and scavenger movement ecology to evaluate host exposure risk and the effects of scavengers on carcass consumption and prion removal or dissemination. Outcomes will provide an understanding of the extent and significance of prion contamination in the environment, which can subsequently inform management actions and disease prediction models.	The prevalence of CWD continues to increase endemically and spread broadly over North America. However, transmission risks and CWD dynamics associated with environmental prion reservoirs remain poorly understood due to the lack of efficient diagnostic tools. With advances in prion assay technology (RT-QuIC), the proposed research can fill key gaps in knowledge about ecologically- and management-relevant environmental sources of CWD transmission. This project builds off previous work funded by the WI-DNR to leverage prion assay technology (real-time quaking-induced conversion; RT-QuIC) to detect chronic wasting disease (CWD) prions in deer tissues and environmental reservoirs. Our aim is to evaluate prion loads in tissues and biotic and abiotic environmental sources (e.g., soil, feces from scavenger species) that are ecologically relevant for CWD dynamics. To better understand environmental CWD dynamics, we aim to semi-quantitatively characterize CWD prion loads in a range of deer tissues, deer scent glands, soils at CWD-infected deer carcass sites, and scavenger scats. Outcomes will provide an understanding of the extent and significance of prion contamination in the environment, which can subsequently inform management actions and disease prediction models.
Linking resources selection to population dynamics of Mule Deer in Idaho	September 2016	Project goal is to test the hypothesis that mule deer population productivity is related to resource selection, and to understand the mechanisms of how the trade-off between nutritional quality of habitat and predation risk determines population growth rate and carrying capacity of a landscape.	None
Ungulate Ecology in Idaho: understanding predator/prey interactions	June 2011	In 2005, IDFG launched the Ungulate Ecology Project. An important initial objective was to simply take a demographic and ecological "snapshot" of representative mule deer and elk populations in 12 study areas across Idaho. Results have provided wildlife managers with important background information, including adult female survival rates and cause-specific mortality, pregnancy rates, body condition, and general movement patterns. The goal is to develop predictive models to estimate elk populations based on elk/wolf ratios and co variates such as topography, habitat, alternate prey species and density, and weather. These models will reduce the need for intensive radio-collaring and monitoring efforts in each GMU of interest, resulting in significant efficiencies. This project requires intensively monitoring elk, moose, and wolves in both study areas, investigating moralities, and significant data management challenges.	None
Surveying for wolves in the Selkirk Mountains	September 2010	USFWS will provide funds for the purpose of surveying and collecting genetic samples at predicted wolf rendezvous sites in the Selkirk Ecosystem; facilitate capture of wolves by the Idaho Department of Fish and Game personnel; monitor wolf movements and locations on a regular basis and report results to the Service.	None
Canada support for Gray Wolf monitoring	December 2010	Funds will be used for continued development of gray wolf population monitoring techniques. Funds will be used to continued expansion and refinement of hunter surveys, rendezvous site surveys, howlboxes, rub stations, and patch occupancy modeling. In addition, a study plan will be developed that will guide implementation of several new techniques in southwest Alberta.	None
Graduate student support on Salmon River Bighorn Sheep	December 2013	The Idaho Department of Fish and Game will provide funds toward graduate student's investigation of bighorn sheep ecology along Salmon River.	None
Non-lethal wolf/livestock conflict resolution & non-invasive population monitoring of Gray Wolves in the Rocky Mountinas	December 2011	This collaborative project will develop and refine non-lethal, non-invasive, and compassionate methods to help protect wolves in the northern Rockies.	None
Wolf Biofence Project	December 2010	These funds will be used to support the "Biofence" study for monitoring wolves.	None
Monitoring the health of wolves by creating bio-fences and using DNA Analyses	December 2012	We have developed several new, non-invasive techniques for wolf population monitoring that do not require capture and handling of wolves. These novel, cutting-edge tools include howlboxes, rub stations, and DNA rendezvous site surveys. These methods have shown great promise over the last 3 years. Continued testing and refinement of these new methods on a statewide scale will ensure they are embraced by the agencies that have made commitments to conserve wolves into the future. A new non-lethal tool that would protect both wolves and livestock in the Rockies. Specifically, we propose using human-deployed wolf scents and urine to establish a "biofence" that can be used to manipulate wolf pack movements on the landscape. This tool mimics wolves natural behavior of maintaining distance from other packs through scent-marking and can be used to non-lethally decrease conflicts between wolves and livestock and reduce subsequent wolf deaths.	None
Sage Grouse Stepping Stones: Identifying Habitat Pathway for Migratory Populations	September 2014	Conservation of migratory populations requires an understanding of how sage-grouse move between seasonal habitats to complete their life cycle. If habitat pathways facilitate movement then managers may need to extend conservation actions to maintain habitats that link seasonal ranges. This project is a collaborative effort and we will affix GPS transmitters to 40 adult and yearling female sage-grouse to investigate migratory movements. Location data for this population will track migration from nesting and brood rearing habitats to seasonal habitat used in winter. Locations will be used to characterize number of stopovers that birds use during migration and amount of time birds spend at each between successive movements.	None
Using demographic analyses to develop monitoring and management tools for wolves in the Northern Rocky Mountains	September 2011	The University is at a unique point as detailed analysis of the tri-state database can be used to inform our patch occupancy modeling, improving its scope of inference and accuracy, and patch occupancy modeling can make dynamics derived from analyses of the tri-state database spatially explicit. Accomplishing this will require in-depth demographic modeling of the tri-state index, learning what it can tell us about population growth, vital rates, dispersion, and pack sized of a re-colonizing wolf population. The approach would have strong management application in two foreseeable ways: (1) insights into wolf population dynamics would greatly strengthen the inferences that could be derived from the patch occupancy modeling. Specifically, incoroporating trends in distribution, reproduction, and the distribution of pack sizes will allow us to generate estimates of population size (current ojectives are for estimating number of packs only), with confidence intervals, for the State of Idaho; and (2) understanding population dynamics using the unprecedented detail found in the tri-state database would provide the basis for estimating sustainable harvests of wolves following delisting. The combination of population modeling with the spatially explicit results of our monitoring protocol would allow geographically targeted planning and refinement of management practices (e.g., control actions, harvest quotas, etc) to meet local, state-wide, and regional objectives. Further, the patch methodology we are developing is not restricted to wolves. Once developed, our approach will have the potential to be adapted for use on other wide-ranging, low density species (e.g., mountain lions, black bears, fishers, etc.) for which developing robust inferences on distribution and population trend are difficult.	None
Evaluating the influence of climate and predation on the survival of Rocky Mountain Elk: A regional synthesis across northwestern states.	April 2016	This study has the following two broad objectives: 1. To assess the influence of landscape-level variation in habitat, climate, predation, and human harvest on the survival and cause-specific mortality of adult female elk across five states in the northwestern US. 2. To understand the potential consequences of these relationships on population growth rate (and available harvest) under different predator, habitat, population management, and climatic scenarios.	None
Can camouflage keep up with climate change? Connecting down-scaled climate models to adaptation for a key forest species.	September 2012	In this project Dr. Mike Mitchell will collaborate with Dr. L. Scott. Mills, who has the longest-running snowshoe hare study in the United States, and Dr. Steve Running, a Nobel-Prize winning IPCC climatologist. We will use radiotelemetry to determine the demographic cost of mismatch of snowshoe hares to their background, and to evaluate the scope for movement and/or adaptive responses whereby timing of coat color shifts are modified or behaviors mitigate negative effects of mismatch. Importantly, we will then specifically connect the responses of hares to high-resolution climate models of snowpack and temperature that are at scales relevant to hares and that can be projected for the next 30-50+ years. The result will be a complete package whereby species (and ecosystem responses) can be forecast using ecologically relevant climate models.	None
Bear Research and Management	September 2010	The purpose of this proposal is to perform specific tasks in support of managing black bear populations and working toward recovery goals for the grizzly bear population in northwestern Montana via support for ongoing U.S. Geological Survey research efforts. Specifically, this proposal describes tasks in support of - providing information on the size and distribution of the black bear population in Glacier National Park and - developing and testing a web interface for a comprehensive database of grizzly bear information in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE). This proposal identifies the following specific tasks to be accomplished by the University of Montana to enable the USGS to meet its goals and provide the anticipated products: 1) Test password protection and restricted access features of the database portal. 2) Test data entry, query, and report production functions. 3) Provide feedback to software developers. 4) Use black bear detection data derived from hair collection in GNP in 2004 in mark-recapture analyses to estimate population size in GNP. 5) Use occupancy modeling to determine relative density patterns. 6) Create relational database of black bear sampling points, detections, capture histories, mortalities, and genetic profiles in GNP.	None
Effects of Climate Change on Structure and Function of the High Priority Ecosystem: Trophic Interactions and Population Trajectories in a Montane Riparian Ecosystem". Dated October 27, 2008	December 2017	Understand the sensitivity and adaptability of ecosystems to climate 2) Determine causal mechanisms underlying ecosystem responses to global change 3) Quantify the role of scaling in understanding and managing responses of biological systems to global change. 4) Develop and test management options for adapting to the effects of global change and minimizing undesired effedts of global change.	Understand the sensitivity and adaptability of ecosystems to climate 2) Determine causal mechanisms underlying ecosystem responses to global change 3) Quantify the role of scaling in understanding and managing responses of biological systems to global change. 4) Develop and test management options for adapting to the effects of global change and minimizing undesired effedts of global change.
From Beavers to Bats: Assessing the Importance of Beaver and Beaver-based Restoration to Riparian Communities in Prairie Systems	December 2027	We plan to use standardized sampling methods (e.g., night-time sticky traps and acoustic monitoring) to estimate (1) insect production, (2) bat foraging activity, and (3) species richness of bats at beaver sites, BDA sites, other available water bodies (human-made ponds/reservoirs/wetlands), as well as corresponding control stream sites. There has been very little work done on the ecosystem effects of beaver in Northern Plains systems, and even less on their potential benefits to non-aquatic species. Because bats in our region forage on flying invertebrates, they are closely associated with water. Water is scarce in the Northern Plains. To help land managers make effective resource decisions and to better understand the role of beaver in prairie systems, we plan to measure the role of natural and artificial beaver ponds (e.g., beaver dam analogs) in insect product and local bat activity.	We plan to use standardized sampling methods (e.g., night-time sticky traps and acoustic monitoring) to estimate (1) insect production, (2) bat foraging activity, and (3) species richness of bats at beaver sites, BDA sites, other available water bodies (human-made ponds/reservoirs/wetlands), as well as corresponding control stream sites. There has been very little work done on the ecosystem effects of beaver in Northern Plains systems, and even less on their potential benefits to non-aquatic species. Because bats in our region forage on flying invertebrates, they are closely associated with water. Water is scarce in the Northern Plains. To help land managers make effective resource decisions and to better understand the role of beaver in prairie systems, we plan to measure the role of natural and artificial beaver ponds (e.g., beaver dam analogs) in insect product and local bat activity.
Modeling host behavior and environmental transmission of chronic wasting disease	July 2027	Chronic wasting disease (CWD) threatens cervids across North America and impacts human communities that hunt, raise, or subsist on deer. This emerging disease is caused by an infectious, misfolded protein, known as a prion, that can be transmitted directly between hosts or via environmental reservoirs. Understanding the principles of infectious disease transmission is crucial for identifying management tools for disease control and prevention. Elucidating such principles is challenging in host-pathogen systems when transmission occurs both directly and indirectly through the environment. Researchers must disentangle diverse multi-scale drivers, from fine-scale host interactions with pathogens in environmental reservoirs to large-scale movements of natural populations in heterogeneous landscapes. This project is a collaboration among researchers across multiple agencies and universities including USGS Cooperative Wildlife Research Units (Wisconsin and Montana), Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin-Madison, University of Montana, and Utah State University. This project proposes a deterministic model scaffold that formally incorporates heterogeneities in social behavior and movement with pathogen retention, transport, and infection potential in complex landscapes. A novel application of multi-scale homogenization to these models will analytically link fine-scale pathways of infection with large-scale population processes. These models will be developed using novel datasets based on new diagnostic techniques to determine the spatial extent and transmission potential of prions in the environment, and modern observation methods to give unprecedented insight into how host behavior and movement, in concert with individual interactions with environmental prion reservoirs, lead to disease transmission in complex environments. Predicted and forecasted prevalence surfaces, with measures of uncertainty, will guide future CWD prevention and control efforts.	Chronic wasting disease (CWD) threatens cervids across North America and impacts human communities that hunt, raise, or subsist on deer. This emerging disease is caused by an infectious, misfolded protein, known as a prion, that can be transmitted directly between hosts or via environmental reservoirs. Understanding the principles of infectious disease transmission is crucial for identifying management tools for disease control and prevention. Elucidating such principles is challenging in host-pathogen systems when transmission occurs both directly and indirectly through the environment. Researchers must disentangle diverse multi-scale drivers, from fine-scale host interactions with pathogens in environmental reservoirs to large-scale movements of natural populations in heterogeneous landscapes. This project is a collaboration among researchers across multiple agencies and universities including USGS Cooperative Wildlife Research Units (Wisconsin and Montana), Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, University of Wisconsin-Madison, University of Montana, and Utah State University. This project proposes a deterministic model scaffold that formally incorporates heterogeneities in social behavior and movement with pathogen retention, transport, and infection potential in complex landscapes. A novel application of multi-scale homogenization to these models will analytically link fine-scale pathways of infection with large-scale population processes. These models will be developed using novel datasets based on new diagnostic techniques to determine the spatial extent and transmission potential of prions in the environment, and modern observation methods to give unprecedented insight into how host behavior and movement, in concert with individual interactions with environmental prion reservoirs, lead to disease transmission in complex environments. Predicted and forecasted prevalence surfaces, with measures of uncertainty, will guide future CWD prevention and control efforts.
Investigating the Role of Host Behavior and Environmental Transmission in CWD Dynamics	September 2025	Chronic wasting disease (CWD), an invariably fatal neurologic disease of cervids, is a major concern for the health of herds in affected regions of North America. Conservation activities for game and non-game species of many wildlife agencies are funded by hunter license sales, and therefore negative effects of CWD on cervid populations and/or hunter participation will have broad, down-stream impacts on wildlife conservation. This makes CWD a major management concern for wildlife agencies and has created demand for tools to monitor and manage CWD spread. Understanding the principles of transmission is crucial for developing effective CWD control tools to target key weaknesses in transmission. Elucidating such principles is challenging for CWD because it is transmitted both directly and indirectly, through environment exposure, and requires an understanding of diverse multi-scale drivers, from fine-scale host interactions with pathogens in environmental reservoirs to large-scale movements of natural populations in heterogeneous landscapes. To date, and often at high political cost, CWD managers have focused on mechanisms of direct transmission, because risk posed by indirect transmission is not understood. Therefore, in collaboration with the WI Department of Natural Resources, the WICWRU and University of Wisconsin, we will leverage and integrate our on-going innovations in CWD modeling, laboratory methods/experiments and field investigation to explore how heterogeneities in host habitat, behavior, and movement mediate direct transmission, deposition of prions into the environment, and subsequent indirect transmission via environmental reservoirs. This will guide managers’ decision-making and help focus response efforts on high-impact transmission mechanisms.	Chronic wasting disease (CWD), an invariably fatal neurologic disease of cervids, is a major concern for the health of herds in affected regions of North America. Conservation activities for game and non-game species of many wildlife agencies are funded by hunter license sales, and therefore negative effects of CWD on cervid populations and/or hunter participation will have broad, down-stream impacts on wildlife conservation. This makes CWD a major management concern for wildlife agencies and has created demand for tools to monitor and manage CWD spread. Understanding the principles of transmission is crucial for developing effective CWD control tools to target key weaknesses in transmission. Elucidating such principles is challenging for CWD because it is transmitted both directly and indirectly, through environment exposure, and requires an understanding of diverse multi-scale drivers, from fine-scale host interactions with pathogens in environmental reservoirs to large-scale movements of natural populations in heterogeneous landscapes. To date, and often at high political cost, CWD managers have focused on mechanisms of direct transmission, because risk posed by indirect transmission is not understood. Therefore, in collaboration with the WI Department of Natural Resources, the WICWRU and University of Wisconsin, we will leverage and integrate our on-going innovations in CWD modeling, laboratory methods/experiments and field investigation to explore how heterogeneities in host habitat, behavior, and movement mediate direct transmission, deposition of prions into the environment, and subsequent indirect transmission via environmental reservoirs. This will guide managers’ decision-making and help focus response efforts on high-impact transmission mechanisms.
Statistical model development to inform disease management in Montana	June 2027	Understanding the epidemiologically processes driving disease dynamics and their resulting impacts on population health is a fundamental need for management agencies tasked with maintaining the health of wildlife populations. However, because of the complexity of disease systems that invariably involve multiple players including the host, pathogen and environment acting on multiple spatio-temporal scales, developing modeling tools to understand these systems and inform management decisions is an important need. Such models are critical for not only understanding past and current effects of disease on the health of populations, but also forecasting future impacts. Thus, they can inform decision-making aimed at protecting and restoring the health of wildlife communities. The goal of this project in collaboration with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks is to develop and apply statistical approaches to meet this need.	Understanding the epidemiologically processes driving disease dynamics and their resulting impacts on population health is a fundamental need for management agencies tasked with maintaining the health of wildlife populations. However, because of the complexity of disease systems that invariably involve multiple players including the host, pathogen and environment acting on multiple spatio-temporal scales, developing modeling tools to understand these systems and inform management decisions is an important need. Such models are critical for not only understanding past and current effects of disease on the health of populations, but also forecasting future impacts. Thus, they can inform decision-making aimed at protecting and restoring the health of wildlife communities. The goal of this project in collaboration with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks is to develop and apply statistical approaches to meet this need.
Highland's Sheep Project	December 2027	<b>Many bighorn sheep populations across the West are struggling with population numbers that are stagnant to decreasing. The cause of this poor population performance can generally be attributed to effects of bighorn sheep respiratory disease. The major causative agent of primary atypical pneumonia in bighorn sheep is <i>Mycoplasma ovi</i> <i>pneumoniae</i> (M. ovi). The disease usually expresses itself as an all-age die-off within a newly infected herd. Subsequently, years to decades of poor lamb survival occur with lambs dying of pneumonia. This mortality prevents the population from rebounding after the initial infection of the herd and is a major concern for managers trying to restore the vigor of the herd. </b><br><b> </b><br><b>The purpose of this project is to test the efficacy of management actions designed to improve performance of struggling bighorn sheep populations by increasing lamb survival and ultimately ensure the conservation of the species. To that end, we will evaluate the effects of testing and removal of M. ovi positive animals. This management strategy is based on the theory that only a few individuals within the herd serve as chronic shedders of M. ovi, and they maintain and pass the pathogen on to doomed naïve lambs born each year. By identifying these few individuals and removing them, we will improve lamb survival. This strategy has been successfully demonstrated in other herds across the West in both free-ranging and captive herds, and during this project we will apply it in the Highlands Sheep herd in Montana.</b><br><br><b>We will also explore the impact of mineral supplementation on lamb survival and population growth. Many bighorn herds demonstrate trace mineral deficiency (based on domestic sheep reference standards). Of particular interest is selenium which has been linked to immune function. The hypothesis we will test is whether access to mineral supplements will increase lamb survival by providing a more robust immune response to M. ovi and other respiratory pathogens.</b><br><br><b>Thus, the overarching goal of our research is to explore whether management actions to improve the health of bighorn sheep herds will be successful.</b>	<b>Many bighorn sheep populations across the West are struggling with population numbers that are stagnant to decreasing. The cause of this poor population performance can generally be attributed to effects of bighorn sheep respiratory disease. The major causative agent of primary atypical pneumonia in bighorn sheep is <i>Mycoplasma ovi</i> <i>pneumoniae</i> (M. ovi). The disease usually expresses itself as an all-age die-off within a newly infected herd. Subsequently, years to decades of poor lamb survival occur with lambs dying of pneumonia. This mortality prevents the population from rebounding after the initial infection of the herd and is a major concern for managers trying to restore the vigor of the herd. </b><br><b> </b><br><b>The purpose of this project, in collaboration with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, is to test the efficacy of management actions designed to improve performance of struggling bighorn sheep populations by increasing lamb survival and ultimately ensure the conservation of the species. To that end, we will evaluate the effects of testing and removal of M. ovi positive animals. This management strategy is based on the theory that only a few individuals within the herd serve as chronic shedders of M. ovi, and they maintain and pass the pathogen on to doomed naïve lambs born each year. By identifying these few individuals and removing them, we will improve lamb survival. This strategy has been successfully demonstrated in other herds across the West in both free-ranging and captive herds, and during this project we will apply it in the Highlands Sheep herd in Montana.</b><br><br><b>We will also explore the impact of mineral supplementation on lamb survival and population growth. Many bighorn herds demonstrate trace mineral deficiency (based on domestic sheep reference standards). Of particular interest is selenium which has been linked to immune function. The hypothesis we will test is whether access to mineral supplements will increase lamb survival by providing a more robust immune response to M. ovi and other respiratory pathogens.</b><br><br><b>Thus, the overarching goal of our research is to explore whether management actions to improve the health of bighorn sheep herds will be successful.</b>
Application of systems modeling to identify novel approaches for wildlife health management	September 2025	Chronic wasting disease, a fatal neurologic disease of cervids that causes population declines and is increasing in intensity and spatial extent, has proven extremely difficult to manage despite intensive control efforts that have spanned several decades. CWD is a significant management challenge in part because the etiological agent, an infectious prion, is extremely difficult to destroy, and can be transmitted directly or indirectly. The majority of management interventions to date require altering densities of deer which is not universally supported by stakeholders. Thus, management agencies are in desperate need of new management tools and approaches that account for these socio-political pressures. To meet this need, we in collaboration with the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, WI Department of Natural Resources, Willamette University and Ventana Systems Inc will use a systems approach to dynamically map the complex relationships between biological, social, and political processes for CWD. Through participatory modeling, we will involve stakeholder groups and experts in CWD, social science, and deer and forest health to integrate the wealth of existing knowledge of the system into a systems map that describes its functioning and the linkages between ecological and social processes. The outcome will be a framework for examining CWD and its impact on deer and forest health that managers can use to discover potential novel management approaches or new means of implementing existing management tools to improve deer health while explicitly accounting for socio-political challenges.	Chronic wasting disease, a fatal neurologic disease of cervids that causes population declines and is increasing in intensity and spatial extent, has proven extremely difficult to manage despite intensive control efforts that have spanned several decades. CWD is a significant management challenge in part because the etiological agent, an infectious prion, is extremely difficult to destroy, and can be transmitted directly or indirectly. The majority of management interventions to date require altering densities of deer which is not universally supported by stakeholders. Thus, management agencies are in desperate need of new management tools and approaches that account for these socio-political pressures. To meet this need, we in collaboration with the USGS National Wildlife Health Center, WI Department of Natural Resources, Willamette University and Ventana Systems Inc will use a systems approach to dynamically map the complex relationships between biological, social, and political processes for CWD. Through participatory modeling, we will involve stakeholder groups and experts in CWD, social science, and deer and forest health to integrate the wealth of existing knowledge of the system into a systems map that describes its functioning and the linkages between ecological and social processes. The outcome will be a framework for examining CWD and its impact on deer and forest health that managers can use to discover potential novel management approaches or new means of implementing existing management tools to improve deer health while explicitly accounting for socio-political challenges.
Grizzly Bear Recovery: Modeling Movement, Home Ranges, Range Expansion, and Population Connectivity	December 2021	A Post Doc will model grizzly bear movement, home ranges, range expansion, and population connectivity to help answer how and why grizzly bears select particular home ranges, how their movement and home range behavior will affect connectivity, and how to best manage for connectivity.	Connectivity among wildlife populations is of pressing concern for many species given the ongoing and accelerating threats of habitat loss to human development, which fragments remaining habitats and isolates the populations relying on them. Species that rely on large areas of undisturbed habitat are often the first to disappear. Loss of connectivity among populations may reduce genetic variation and the ability to respond to changing environmental conditions. Theory and empirical precedent have shown that island populations face greater risks of extinction, especially when small<sup>1</sup>. The loss of connectivity may accordingly accelerate the irreversible loss of entire species.<br>Two hundred years ago an estimated 50,000 grizzly bears (<i>Ursus arctos</i>) inhabited North America (fws.gov). The arrival of Europeans brought heavy persecution, habitat destruction, and the rapid downfall of a species that had dominated the landscape for thousands of years. By 1975, within the contiguous US only six small populations clung to existence in just 2% of grizzly bears’ former range<sup>2</sup>.<br>In 1973, the Endangered Species Act was enacted and grizzly bears were among the first species protected. Six recovery ecosystems were designated (Fig. 1) and unprecedented collaborations began among agencies, tribes, landowners, and the public in efforts to recover the last grizzly bear populations. Through these efforts, numbers have slowly increased. Today population estimates exceed 700 animals in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) and 1000 in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE). The Selkirk Ecosystem (SE) has approximately 80 grizzly bears, and augmentations into the Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystem (CYE) helped boost the population to an estimated 50 animals. To date, the Bitterroot (BE) and North Cascades Ecosystems (NCE) lack any known permanent residents.<br>The once-contiguous grizzly bear populations remain largely isolated. Even though some ecosystems are contiguous into Canada, grizzly bears in these areas face similar threats of low numbers, population fragmentation, and habitat loss<sup>2</sup>. With increasing numbers in the NCDE and GYE, grizzly bears have slowly regained parts of their former range. By 2017, only 110 km separated the two distributions, and individuals had been detected between the ecosystems nearly two dozen times<sup>3</sup>. While the GYE still likely remains isolated, researchersrecently identified potential corridors for male-mediated gene flow between the NCDE and GYE<sup>3</sup>. Their timely work was much needed and well received. No studies have addressed connectivity among the other recovery ecosystems or for females. Although several other ecosystems are in closer proximity to one-another and the NCDE, known dispersals remain rare and the likelihood and viability of connectivity remain unknown. Connectivity remains the best chance for recovering and conserving healthy populations in the CYE and SE. Natural recolonization is likely to be the only opportunity to recover grizzly bears in the BE.<br>Given the importance of connectivity, one of the most urgent conservation challenges for grizzly bears today is the identification of connectivity areas among recovery ecosystems, and proactive efforts to reduce the potential for human-grizzly bear conflicts. Connectivity is most likely to first occur through male movements because males disperse farther than females, who often stay in the vicinity of their mothers’ home ranges<sup>4-6</sup>. Ecosystems will therefore likely become genetically connected first, but will remain demographically isolated unless females also become connected through range expansion. Demographic connectivity would particularly improve long-term conservation of the CYE and SE populations given their low numbers, and is imperative for recovering grizzly bears in the BE. Research is thus needed to assess the potential corridors that could promote genetic and demographic connectivity for males and females among recovery ecosystems. This would require innovative research to adapt a recently-used approach<sup>3</sup> to focus more on habitat use, home range acquisition, and range expansion rather than movement paths alone due to females’ short-distance dispersals. Models are likewise needed to identify specific movement corridors, denning sites, and areas that are most likely to impede movements, such as where corridors are intersected by roads.
State Parks Foundation	November 2020	Work collaboratively with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks to develop a template, process and staff training from which a series of foundation documents for each of the 55 units of the state park system will be written. Assist the division in consolidating and editing the documents	Establish the purpose and intent of foundation documents for the state parks division. Define how foundation documents will tie to other park planning efforts. Develop document templates. Develop a process for the completion of foundation documents by individual park managers. Compile all documents into a single document that reads with a common voice
Predicting puma densities and distribution	May 2022	The masters student will act as project coordinator analyzing existing data and providing direction on new data collection needs or modeling opportunities. It is expected that the student will lead at least two peer reviewed journal articles resulting from this research collaboration.	Prior to European settlement, pumas occupied all of the contiguous US (CONUS). Two centuries of persecution, depletion of ungulate prey, and habitat loss reduced their range to the western states and southern Florida (Logan and Sweanor 2010). Pumas are a hunted species in all states except California and Florida. As an area-sensitive species that requires dispersal among neighboring populations (Beier 1993, Grigione 2002), they would benefit from coordinated management at large spatial scales, sometimes spanning state boundaries. Despite public support for restoring large carnivores and the puma’s status as a flagship species for conservation, coordination across large areas rarely occurs. Such efforts would be abetted by a comprehensive assessment of puma densities across their range in the contiguous US (CONUS). This project will use existing cougar data sets to predict cougar density and distribution across North America. The findings of this project will inform hunting programs, provide insight into cougar ecology, anticipate and manage eastward re-colonization, identify small or potentially isolated populations, and help shape future land use and connectivity plans.
Preventing Predation: Mechanistic Drivers of and Deterrents in Conflict with Jaguars	May 2021	A Post Doctoral Research Associate will act as project coordinator analyzing existing data and providing direction on new data collection needs. It is expected that the postdoc will lead at least two peer reviewed journal articles resulting from this research collaboration.	Large carnivores are both feared and revered in many cultures. In North America large carnivores where once extirpated from the vast majority of their range mostly due to a perceived threat to humans and their livestock. Primary research into the ecology of wolves, cougars, and grizzly bears and a renewed conservation ethic valuing the ecological role of large carnivores has helped lead effective measures that today are seeing these large carnivores expand back into historical range. Outside of North America most jurisdictions strive for some level of carnivore conservation yet conflict and retaliatory killing remains a great conservation concern. Like many carnivores, one of the greatest human impacts on jaguars stems from conflict surrounding human agricultural developments. Retaliatory killing of jaguars in response to real or perceived depredation threat is thought to reduce the presence of jaguars on the landscape. The main objective of this research is to determine the mechanistic drivers of predator–prey distribution and interactions of jaguars in unprotected agricultural areas.
Mandatory Reporting and Harvest Surveys Evaluation	June 2021	A research associate to conduct analyses exploring the relative accuracy and costs of the mandatory reporting and harvest survey systems considered in previously completed, collaborative research.	The specific objective of this project is to evaluate the relative accuracy and financial costs of mandatory, self-reporting of harvest by hunters versus survey sampling to estimate the harvest of big game animals in Montana.
Predator use of white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, and elk and influence on population dynamics.	June 2021	The Ph.D. project will evaluate population dynamics and predator use of white-tailed deer, mule deer, moose, and elk in northern Idaho. The primary study objective is to improve understanding of how multiple predator species select and utilize multiple prey species across different habitat types in northern Idaho.	We’ll use existing data from elk (GPS-collared as part of statewide survival monitoring), and new data from white-tailed deer, mule deer, and moose GPS-collared specifically for this investigation to estimate survival, reproduction, and cause-specific mortality of various sex- and age-classes (fawns/calves, females, males). Specifically, we will capture white-tailed deer and mule deer, fit adult females with a linked iridium GPS/ VIT system, and capture neonatal fawns at less than 1-day old from marked females. Adult males will be marked with expandable collars or solar-powered eartags. Mortality sites will be investigated and cause of death determined from each age and sex class. We will also use existing data from wolves (collared as part of previous statewide investigations) and new data from wolves, black bears, and mountain lions collared specifically for this research to determine ungulate kill rates, diet composition, and movement rates. The student is expected to complete a detailed pre-proposal prior to 1 May, 2020.<br> <br>The graduate student will be expected to work in a multi-disciplinary team including: graduate students and professors from University of Idaho, University of Montana, University of Washington, and University of British Columbia; and research and management biologists from the states of Idaho, Montana, Washington, and British Columbia. The 5 graduate students involved in the Idaho portion of the project will make up the primary work force for the projects, with short term assistance from seasonal technicians.
Westslope Cutthroat Trout Project	June 2021	A graduate research assistant to focus on the project which includes monitoring migrations often identify causes for mortality/impairment that may be mitigated via restoration such as screening a diversion or removing a culvert barrier. Identification of key spawning habitat also allows managers to better protect these key habitats and may provide a way to identify and prioritize land acquisition and easement projects in these areas.	Rock Creek is a world class trout fishery located in western Montana which also supports a robust native fish community including fluvial westslope cutthroat trout. Westslope cutthroat trout comprise a major component (appx. 40%) of the salmonid sport-fishery in the upper portion of the Rock Creek drainage. While westslope cutthroat trout are found in lower densities lower in the drainage, these populations still provide quality angling opportunities with angler catch rates of westslope cutthroat trout being quite high in comparison to their abundance (Liermann 2017, in prep). Understanding native fishes’ life histories is a key component of properly managing these species. Spawning migrations are obviously an important component of a fish’s life history as the successful completion of spawning is imperative to sustaining populations. Due to the long distances commonly traveled by westslope cutthroat trout to spawn in their natal tributaries, they commonly encounter difficulties in completing these migrations and may not even survive. Monitoring these migrations often identify causes for mortality/impairment that may be mitigated via restoration such as screening a diversion or removing a culvert barrier. Identification of key spawning habitat also allows managers to better protect these key habitats and may provide a way to identify and prioritize land acquisition and easement projects in these areas. The first year of this study was completed in 2018 and included some interesting findings. Genetic testing of tagged fish showed that most were non-hybridized westslope cutthroat trout based on SNPs analysis. Only three fish were found to have greater than 10% introgression with rainbow trout. Thus, it appears that this population is not just providing quality recreational angling but is also a population of conservation importance. Based on these results we have altered our study plan to further understand this population and threats to it. We are also proposing to fund a graduate research assistant to focus on the project.
Human dimensions of grizzly bear management in MT - Grizzly Bear Social Survey	June 2020	A graduate student will work closely with FWP Staff to develop, implement, and report on a survey of Montanans' attitudes about grizzly bears and grizzly bear management.	Design a survey to provide information about public tolerance for grizzly bears, attitudes about grizzly bear management, and the social and personal drivers of public attitudes in specific areas of Montana.<br>Design a sampling scheme that will result in estimates of the quantities of interest at the appropriate spatial scales, for the populations of interest.<br>Implement the survey in a timely and cost-efficient manner, including incorporation of methodology to account for non-response bias.<br>Analyze data using rigorous techniques and sample response weighting to ensure accurate inferences to the extent possible.<br>Present results for distribution in a concise written report and for publication in the peer-reviewed literature, as well as in verbal presentations.<br>Provide recommendations regarding approaches to grizzly bear management in line with survey results and in the context of grizzly bear management outlined in existing FWP documentation of the grizzly bear planning Structured Decision Making process and other ongoing grizzly bear planning efforts.
Blackfoot Clearwater Elk Study	June 2022	A graduate student will conduct a research project evaluating the effects of wildfire on elk forage, demography, and distributions in the Blackfoot-Clearwater area, and will lead data analysis, writing, and completion of the final report.	The specific objectives of this project are to:<br>1. Collect elk diet data.<br>2. Evaluate elk body condition and pregnancy rates.<br>3. Evaluate and compare elk use of areas that burned at different levels of fire severity.<br>4. Evaluate and compare vegetation and forage resources in areas that burned at different levels of fire severity.<br>5. Develop a resource selection probability function model to evaluate the effects of wildfire and other factors on summer elk distributions.<br>6. Provide preliminary recommendations or guidelines for fire management that improve elk forage quality, security, and/or elk use of treatment areas.<br>
Grizzly Bear Integrated Population Modeling and Interface Development	December 2020	The project is to work with collaborating scientists to develop a database to store grizzly bear population data required for an integrated population model.	Provide a web interface to query and display up-to-date information on bear populations (data query and visualization - moralities, telemetry Information, etc.)<br>Develop a tool and analyze data to guide monitoring data collection in the future Develop a tool to predict and display future population size and human caused mortality risks including measures of precision for all predictions.
Evaluation of survey approches to assess status of Species of Greatest Inventory Need and effects of MFWP habitat management on non-game indicator species	December 2020	A Postdoctoral to provide evaluation of survey approaches to assess status of Species of Greatest Inventory Need and effects of MFWP habitat management on non-game indicator species.	<b>Project need and purpose: </b><br>The fundamental objectives of the Montana FWP non-game management program include:<br>(1) conserving, enhancing and restoring habitat for nongame wildlife,<br>(2) maintaining nongame species distribution and abundance, and<br>(3) minimizing the number of nongame species that meet criteria for Federal listing or are state listed as Species of Concern (SOC) category ≤3. <br>These program priorities are also reflected in the Montana State Wildlife Action Plan (SWAP). Several non-game species are classified as SOC ≤3 (higher priority) and/or as Species of Greatest Inventory Need (SGIN) in the SWAP, due to a lack of information on population status or distribution. Changing the SOC status for species for which we lack information and assessing the impacts of habitat management on non-game avian species both rely upon survey and monitoring programs to provide information about status and trend (Yoccoz et al. 2001, Gitzen & Millspaugh 2012). Existing monitoring tools such as the Breeding Bird Survey (BBS; Sauer et al. 2016), and Integrated Monitoring in Bird Conservation Regions (IMBCR; Pavlacky et al. 2017) provide measures of trend (BBS), density and occupancy (IMBCR) for many bird species to inform these objectives. However, these programs don’t provide sufficient information on species that are uncommon (e.g. Great Gray Owl, <i>Strix nebulosa</i>), elusive (e.g. Greater Short-Horned Lizard, <i>Phrynosoma hernandesi</i>), or restricted to specific habitats (e.g. Black Rosy Finches, <i>Leucosticte atrata</i>) or habitat features (e.g. Black Swifts; <i>Cypseloides niger</i>). As such, MFWP has initiated extensive survey efforts for several SGIN not sufficiently detected by existing monitoring programs. These efforts have already identified potential habitat and provided further information regarding range extent, while also highlighting the limitations of some survey designs to acquire the needed information for some species. A framework that characterizes the <u>survey effort needed to attain certain information</u> based on species characteristics would <u>support efficient survey effort </u>to support status assessment for SGIN species (Legg & Nagy 2006).<br><b> </b><br>In addition to acquiring adequate information to inform conservation status for remaining SGIN species, MFWP is tasked with assessing the effectiveness of habitat management. FWP expends considerable resources on habitat management on FWP-owned and private lands, which in many cases is focused in part on improving habitat for non-game species and thereby maintaining or improving their distribution. Within existing habitat management initiatives, the Forest Management Plan (MFWP 2017) requires decadal (or sooner) review while the Grassland Initiative (MFWP 2017) calls for quantitative effectiveness monitoring in order to meet conservation objectives. Historically, addressing specific conservation objectives has utilized independent monitoring designs for local management units, but the diversity of designs precludes utility and effective integration into management programs at larger scales (Bart 2005). Existing programs, which identify the effects of habitat change at larger spatial and temporal scales (e.g. Hitch & Leberg 2007, Pavlacky et al. 2017, Specht & Arnold in review), may provide sufficient power to detect changes in populations resulting from local habitat management treatments over short time periods if supplemented with additional targeted sampling (Pavlacky et al. 2017). This approach would capitalize on existing rigorous sampling designs, analytical approaches and expertise while contributing to larger datasets (Gitzen & Millspaugh 2012). Power analyses can be used to understand the relative efficiency of independent monitoring designs compared to that of large-scale, coordinated monitoring programs and adaptations at detecting the effects of habitat conservation and management actions on bird communities, as well as informing discussion about the level of effort that might be required for rigorous evaluations of the effects of habitat management.
Fisher Occupancy, Habitat Needs, and Responses to Management in the Northern Rocky Mountains	June 2022	A MS student will estimate the probability that potentially suitable habitat is occupied across the 3-state range of NRM fishers (occupancy estimate); estimate the influence of forest type, known fisher population centers, translocation history, and harvest/incidental mortality on fisher occupancy; and integrate survey design with the multi-state wolverine occupancy survey design, and coordinate field logistics with similar survey efforts by USFS staff in specific forest units.	The NRM fisher population is considered a distinct population segment by the USFWS because it is disjunct from other fisher populations. NRM fisher have been petitioned for listing as a federally threatened species on multiple occasions. In 2011, the USFWS determined fishers were not warranted for listing. In response to another petition in 2013, the USFWS initiate a status review in January 2017 to consider fishers for protections under the Endangered Species Act, and they decided in October 2017 that fishers are not warranted for listing. Fishers are currently classified as a furbearer with a closed season in Idaho, and they are managed as a furbearer with a very limited quota in Montana.
Sage Grouse Grazing Project PhD Student	June 2022	A PhD student to provide research, evaluation and development for a project evaluating the impacts of grazing on sage-grouse population dynamics in central Montana, FWP Region 5.	Services (salary, fringe, and health) of one Ph.D. student to help complete deliverables for the State’s sage-grouse grazing project near Roundup, Montana; services (salary, fringe, and health) of Victoria Dreitz, Ph.D., Associate Professor and Director of the Avian Science Center, The University of Montana, as the student’s advisor. This sage-grouse project is assessing biological responses of sage-grouse adult females and chicks, and sage-grouse habitat, to large-scale grazing treatments. This collaborative project is led by State staff Lorelle Berkeley, Ph.D., Research Wildlife Biologist, and a Conservation Technician; and University of Montana (UMT) staff supervised by Dr. Dreitz.<br>
Kootenai River Trout Survival Analysis	August 2020	Estimate annual apparent survival and abundance estimates for rainbow, cutthroat, bull and brown trout for each of the four Kootenai River sections and evaluate the correlation of these estimates with the environmental and biological covariates.	Little information exists related to growth and survival of Kootenai River trout populations below Libby Dam. Operations at Libby Dam since construction have generally been a gradual conversion to conditions that more closely simulate normative river conditions. Montana FWP conducted annual mark recapture surveys of resident trout (rainbow, cutthroat, brown and bull trout) in the Kootenai River in four sections including the Libby Dam (river mile [RM] 218.2-221.7; 18,480 feet), the Re-Regulation (Re-reg) section (RM 213.2-215.1; 8,700 feet), the Flower-Pipe Section (RM 201.1-204.0; 15,450 feet), and Troy section (RM 183.8-186.2; 12,619 feet). Collectively the length of these four river sections comprise about 21% of the Montana portion of the Kootenai River downstream of Libby Dam. The Libby Dam, Flower-Pipe and Troy sections were sampled annually during September 2011-2017 and the Re-Regulation section was sampled annually in March 2011-2018. MFWP also attempted to partition apparent survival into approximately 6-month periods by sampling the Re-Reg section in the fall of 2015, 2016, and 2017, and the Flower-Pipe and Troy sections during the spring of 2016 and 2017 (Table 1). The objective of this work is to estimate apparent survival of resident trout in four sections of the Kootenai River and attempt to correlate several biological and environmental covariates to these vital statistics with the expectation of developing management recommendations to improve the survival of Kootenai River trout. MFWP is seeking technical assistance from the University of Montana to complete these analyses. We have discussed this project with Dr. Paul Lukacs and worked collaboratively to develop this statement of work.
Modeling large mammal predator-prey dynamics to inform harvest management	June 2021	A PhD student is to us IDFG's existing data to fomulate and parameterize predator-prey models, with the aim to help manage Idaho's multiple predators (wolves, cougars, bears, coyotes, and bobcats) and multiple prey species (mule deer, elk, white-tailed deer, and moose) in a community context.	Predation is a fundamental ecological process. It is critically important in shaping biological communities, and affecting coupled human-natural systems. However, the effects of predation on prey populations are continually debated (e.g., Schmitz, Hamback & Beckerman 2000; Shurin et al. 2002). Predation can be compensatory (Errington 1946; Vucetich, Smith & Stahler 2005), where prey population dynamics are not significantly affected (e.g., predators remove the least fit individuals that were not going to survive the winter); or predation can be additive (Gasaway et al. 1983; Messier 1994), where prey population dynamics are significantly impacted by predators. When predation is additive, it can be limiting or regulating (dependent on prey densities). These species interactions can be key in shaping communities.<br>Most predator-prey models and theory are based on data from single predator, single prey systems such as the iconic Isle Royale Moose-wolf system (Messier 1994; Vucetich et al. 2011). However, there is a current lack of studies on how multiple predators and multiple prey species can interact to determine the overall community dynamics. In reality, multiple predators and multiple prey are part of the same community and can interact in fundamental ways. Indeed, the recent recovery of gray wolves, expansion of grizzly bears, and reported increases in mountain lion populations across some areas of the west, including Idaho, have dramatically increased the complexity and number of interactions between now 3-4 predators, and up to 6 large ungulate species. In many systems, for example, there may be wolves, and mountain lions simultaneously preying on shared elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer and bighorn sheep.<br>However, most current management strategies evaluate and manage populations independently. For example, state wildlife agencies often have independent, isolated, elk, deer, or wolf (for example) management plans that are not integrated. Historically, in the absence of such complexity, such independent management may have been warranted. Unfortunately, predator and prey population dynamics do not operate in isolation, especially in more complex ecological communities. For example, altering harvest of mule deer and elk are likely to affect predator populations that are dependent on them. Conversely, management of wolves is likely to have an effect on the wolves’ prey population dynamics, and, potentially other shared predators on those same prey populations.<br>The goal of this project is to use IDFG’s existing data to formulate and parameterize predator-prey models, with the aim to help manage Idaho’s multiple predators (wolves, cougars, bears, coyotes, and bobcats) and multiple prey species (mule deer, elk, white-tailed deer, and moose) in a community context. These models will incorporate how the multiple predator and prey populations affect each other. We will formulate mechanistic mathematical models that include species interactions and feedbacks, mainly using existing IDFG data on these populations, but also drawing from previous research in other areas. These models will allow us to explore various management strategies to optimize management across the entire predator-prey community. For example, researchers and managers recently developed and applied such mathematical predator-prey modeling to systems of wolves, moose, caribou, mountain lions and ‘deer’ (including mule deer and white-tailed deer) in British Columbia to guide multispecies harvest (and recovery of endangered caribou) management for both ungulates and carnivores.
Lower Blackfoot Bear Stress Study	September 2024	An undergraduate student will evaluate the stress response of black bears and grizzly bears interacting with roads that fragment their natural habitat and we will elucidate unique insights into the physiological stress response of a large mammal using a new and innovative non-invasive survey technique.	STATEMENT OF NEED:In collaboration with the University of Montana, the Bureau of Land Management Missoula Field Office,and Working Dogs for Conservation we will evaluate the stress response of black bears and grizzly bears interactingwith roads that fragment their natural habitat and we will elucidate unique insights into the physiological stressresponse of a large mammal using a new and innovative non-invasive survey technique. In collaboration with MPGRanch, we will evaluate the stress response of black bears using the private conservation property. We will measurethe stress response of black bears and grizzly bears in the Lower Blackfoot Valley of Northwest Montana using scatdetectiondogs (WD4C, 2019) and on MPG Ranch opportunistically by researchers who are checking and backtrackingblack bear sightings at game cameras. In the Lower Blackfoot, we will relate this response to opposinglevels of road management and traffic during the spring black bear hunting season following den emergence. OnMPG Ranch we want to be able to elucidate the stress response of bears using the property to be able to determine ifcurrent levels and patterns of use are sustainable for the individual’s persistence. We will also be obtainingindividual sex, individual ID, and species data from fecal DNA analyses for both study areas.Using cortisol concentrations that we obtain from the scat samples, we will address the followingquestions: (1) do bears exhibit a stress response to roads?; (2) if so, does the stress response vary among the levels ofaccess restrictions we are testing?; (3) what distance within our 800m buffer do bears begin to show a physiologicalstress response?; (4) is there any variation in stress response between individuals or species?; and, (5) do males orfemales show a greater stress response? The ability roads have to give humans access into wildlife habitat has beenshown to have a negative physiological effect on bears. Bears have large home ranges that often overlap with forestroads. Thus, we hypothesize that motorized use roads will cause a bear to have an increased stress response greaterthan both non-motorized use roads and our control group. If this is true, then we predict that when a bear encountersmotorized use roads, we will observe the largest spike in cortisol concentrations. Whereas, when a bear encounters anon-motorized use road, we believe the observed cortisol concentrations will be greater than our control group butless than the motorized use group. Regardless, we will obtain baseline fecal glucocorticoid levels from the WalesCreek Wilderness Study Area.This study will provide support for a number of secretarial orders including: No. 3347, No. 3356, No. 3362,No. 3366 by improving game and habitat management, improving and/or maintaining hunting, fishing, shooting,recreating, and wildlife conservation opportunities, and lastly, by improving habitat quality of big game species. Wewill be collaborating with state (Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks), federal (Bureau of Land Management), andnon-governmental organizations (MPG Ranch) to enhance wildlife viewing opportunities by promoting coexistencebetween humans and large carnivores. We will be communicating our science through professional workshops andmeetings (est. 2020 International Bear Association Kalispell, MT Conference, 2020 TWS Montana, etc). theobjectives outlined above are essential to identifying, restoring, and conserving roads and habitat. And lastly, weintend to stimulate public understanding of the BLM’s role in maintaining and enhancing viable big gamepopulations of wildlife and wildlife habitat through education.
Effects of conifer expansion and removal on songbird abundances and reproductive success in high-elevation sagebrush of Southwestern Montana	August 2024	Understanding the consequences of conifer removal for abundance and reproductive output of songbirds using both conifer and sagebrush habitats is needed to understand best practices for enhancing populations of all wildlife. Mountain sagebrush landscapes include other woody habitat like denser conifer stands at the periphery of conifer removal areas. Conifer removal can create artificial ‘hard’ edges that might yield high predation near the edges both inside and outside the conifer. This could even create ecological traps, where abundances are high but breeding productivity creates population sinks that yield declining populations near the edges in both habitats. We will examine: 1) abundance and reproductive output of sagebrush-obligate songbirds in sagebrush habitat in Sage-grouse core areas and including some active leks without versus with conifer removal, 2) abundance and reproductive output of conifer-dependent songbirds in adjacent conifer stands, 3) the change in songbird species composition from conifer to sagebrush habitats, and 4) impacts of distance from woody vegetation on nesting success and population trajectories (i.e., lambda) of songbirds. This information will inform the management removal of conifer trees located in stands of mountain big sagebrush habitats, and provide specific recommendations on the landscape contexts and distances from woody cover that will benefit songbirds the most.	Conifer removal is a core practice in sage-steppe restoration to benefit Elk (<i>Cervus </i>Canadensis) and Greater Sage-grouse (<i>Centrocercus urophasianus</i>) as well as other sagebrush species of management concern. Research to identify the demographic impacts on sagebrush obligate songbirds, as well as conifer-dependent songbird species, is lacking. Understanding the consequences of conifer removal for abundance and reproductive output of songbirds using both conifer and sagebrush habitats in high elevation Montana is needed to understand best practices for enhancing populations of all wildlife. Partners include US Fish and Wildlife Service, US Bureau of Land Management, Montana Fish, Wildife and Parks, Nature Conservancy and private landowners. This information will inform the management removal of conifer trees located in stands of mountain big sagebrush habitats, and provide specific recommendations on the landscape contexts and distances from woody cover that will benefit songbirds the most.
Moose Ecology, State of Colorado	June 2019	Graduate student project to address Colorado Parks and Wildlife need to incorporate moose browse characteristics into the greater moose research project and potentially develop or evaluate a framework for incorporating moose-browse characteristics and relationships into a broader herd management plan.	Problem:<br>Moose populations have experienced declines throughout the southern portion of their range in the continental United States. Factors that may be negatively impacting moose populations include climate change, predation, disease, parasitism, and habitat change; however, many questions remain as to the ultimate drivers of declining populations. Moose populations in Colorado, which occur at the southern extent of the range, have been stable or increasing and recently experienced large-scale habitat disturbance caused by mountain pine beetles.<br><br>Why the research matters:<br>An understanding of the effects of moose landscape use and diet quality on population productivity and calf recruitment in Colorado is needed to inform local management decisions and to better understand mechanistic drivers of moose population change in the continental US.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>The project involves a collaboration of researchers and management biologists from University of Montana and Colorado Parks and Wildlife.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>A desired outcome of this research is to provide biologists with a set of key habitat metrics that can be monitored through time to inform moose habitat and population management decisions. The research will also be used by moose researchers throughout the United States and Canada to better understand how nutrition and habitat influence moose population dynamics at broader scales.
Large Mammal Predator-Prey modeling dynamics	July 2019	Graduate students research to understand predator/prey dynamics to inform harvest management. It is critically important in shaping biological communities, and affecting coupled human-natural system. The effects of predation on prey populations are continually debated.	Problem:<br>Few wildlife management problems in the western US compare to the challenges of managing multiple predator and prey species in the same ecosystem. Given sub stantial changes in the carnivore community of the northern Rockies over past decades, long-term study is needed to understand interactions between large ungulates and the carnivores that prey on them.<br><br>Why the research matters:<br>A diversity of stakeholders living in the northern Rockies pay close attention to native large mammals, whether they view them as game species, important ecosystem components, or agricultural pests. This work provides critical context for managers to make the difficult decisions for balancing both predator and prey population s to meet public expectations.<br><br>Partners:<br>Cooperators include the University of Montana and Idaho Fish and Game.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>This work directly informs the decisions made by wildlife managers responsible for setting harvest quotas to meet population objectives. These decisions are fundamental to the mandates of state agencies and data that improve reliability and transparency of harvest decisions are critically needed as public scrutiny increases.
Black Bears & Bobcats Integrated Population Models	December 2018	Creating integrated population models (IPMs) for black bears and bobcats to inform population analyses, harvest management recommendations, and decisions for these species.	Problem:<br>Understanding dynamics of large carnivore populations is challenging because they are uncommon and elusive. Management decisions such as setting harvest quotas and controlling damage are thus hampered by a lack of understanding of abundance and trends for such animals.<br><br>Why the research matters:<br>Game populations interact with predator populations in complex ways. Agencies commonly have good information on the dynamics but the absence of such information on predator populations makes discerning the complex interactions highly difficult. This impedes making effective management decisions for both game and predator species. Integrated population models offer the ability to fill in missing information.<br><br>Collaborators:<br>Cooperators include the University of Montana, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, and Idaho Fish and Game.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>Setting harvest quotas for game and predator species is integral to the mandate of state agencies. This research will inform those decisions, as well as those that need to be made for damage management, public safety, and wildlife health.
Factors affecting demography of songbirds in tropical rainforests	March 2021	The ecological consequences of climate change have focused on effects of temperature and ignored the effects of rain. Yet, rainfall also is changing. Lab studies have demonstrated that wetting increases thermal conductance and energy expenditure of adult and juvenile endotherms, and rain may constrain foraging (energy acquisition). Any such energy constraints may be particularly significant when parents are trying to meet the needs of growing offspring, such that rain may play a critical role in demography and adaptive trait evolution of endotherms during reproduction. This may be particularly important in tropical rainforests where rain is prevalent, thermal tolerances are narrow, and temperatures are below thermoneutral levels. In response, animals may have evolved behavioral strategies and nest structures (enclosed vs open nests) to affect exposure to rain. Studies of the effects of rainfall on energetics and behavior across diverse species and nest types are lacking	Climate can strongly impact energy expenditure and thereby demography of songbirds through the interacting effects of rain and temperature, although impacts may differ among species related to their behaviors and nest structures. Yet, measurement of energy expenditure among coexisting species with respect to varying rain and temperature conditions is completely lacking. This project is a collaboration with Sabah Parks. This project will provide data on the differential demographic sensitivities of species to allow prioritization of species for management, and also advances conceptual understanding of why species differ in demographic sensitivity.
Sage Grouse & Grazing Study	October 2018	The 8 Research Assistant IIs (sage-grouse field technicians) and 1 Research Assistant III (field crew leader) will work on the greater sage-grouse (hereafter sage-grouse) grazing evaluation project in central Montana. This study is assessing biological responses of sage-grouse hens and chicks, and sage-grouse habitat, to large-scale grazing treatments. This collaborative project is led by State staff Dr. Lorelle Berkeley, Research Wildlife Biologist, and Mark Szczypinski, Research Technician, and Dr. David Naugle, Professor, College of Forestry and Conservation, The University of Montana. <br><br>The field crew leader will supervise 4 sage-grouse field technicians as well as assist with field work as described above. Mark Szczypinski will supervise all technicians, including the field crew leader, and Lorelle Berkeley will supervise Mark and help supervise the entire field crew. Field conditions include extreme temperatures and other adverse conditions, driving in a truck on low maintenance roads several hours a day, require technicians to work alone in remote locations or in teams, and may require hiking several miles a day to monitor birds or get to vegetation sampling points. The work schedule is dynamic and demanding, including early morning or late night work and unpredictable days off due to weather.	Problem:<br>Greater-sage grouse populations have been declining in the western US because of negative changes to their habitat. Emulating the historical, positive effect of native bison on sage grouse habitat, alternative regimes of grazing domestic cattle have the potential to improve habitat for sage grouse.<br><br>Why it matters:<br>Domestic livestock grazing is a newly founded conservation tool used in parts of the western United States to benefit sagebrush steppe systems. Notably, conservation efforts to protect declining greater sage-grouse populations have implemented various grazing management strategies. The efficacy of these strategies needs to be evaluated to set long-range strategies for sage grouse conservation.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>The project is a collaboration of resource managers and biologists across multiple agencies and non-governmental organizations and includes University of Montana, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Bureau of Land Management, Safari Club International Foundation, and US Fish and Wildlife Service.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>The project will determine how greater-sage grouse respond to conservation managed-grazing strategies. Results will inform land managers on how and when conservation-based livestock grazing benefits sage grouse populations.
Population Dynamics and Modeling - Cougars	December 2019	We will deploy camera stations in suitable habitat predicted by IDFG’s mule deer and elk winter RSF model in GMUs 33-35. Cameras will be active from 2 Oct – 30 April. Detections of cougars at camera stations will be used to estimate cougar abundance with spatial mark-resight models. Cougar detection data will be rarified so that we can compare models populated with detections of single cougars to extended models that include multiple states, including females with kittens. To provide a comparison and test of camera stations, we will tree cougars in winter using hounds and biopsy dart them to obtain DNA samples and generate an independent measure of abundance. We will attempt to enlist local hound hunters to tree cougars and obtain samples by providing them with dart guns, sample kits, and reimbursement for expenses while sampling. We estimate 36 capture events per year in GMUs 33-35 and the same in GMUs 70, 73A, 56. We will radiocollar 18 of the captured cougars in each of the study areas to estimate space use and detection probability.	Problem:<br>Solitary predators are notoriously difficult to monitor because they occur at low densities and are elusive. New techniques for estimating abundance using camera surveys offer a solution to this problem because they do not depend on many of the assumptions required (e.g., identification of individual animals) by traditional estimation techniques.<br><br>Why this research matters:<br>To be useful for monitoring carnivores, this new methodology requires 1) confirming that typical behaviors of carnivores (e.g., territoriality) do not bias estimates, and 2) a test on carnivores under field conditions.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>In collaboration with University of Montana and Idaho Fish and Game (IDFG), we are conducting simulations to address 1, above, and using the technique to estimate abundance of mountain lions in different regions of Idaho to address 2.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>Results of this work will give IDFG managers an unprecedented opportunity to reliably estimate abundance for a variety of carnivores in Idaho. This will also allow managers to defensibly evaluate and demonstrate carnivore management in the state.
Montana Resident - Wolf Hunt Analysis	June 2017	Montana Fish, Wildlife, and Parks seeks to understand public perceptions about wolf populations and management. Efforts toward this end have included a survey of Montana residents’ attitudes towards wolf hunting. In 2010, MFWP employed four separate surveys to gather information from MT residents, resident private landowners, resident wolf license holders, and resident deer/elk license holders. Data gathered through these surveys are available in a report from the agency. Findings in this report have been challenged by various segments of the public. Among the critiques is an assertion that the sample did not represent the full MT public. MFWP has asked for assistance in replicating the 2010 study to examine longitudinal change in attitudes, solidify sampling techniques, use an independent research team to validate methods and sampling procedures, and engage in peer-review publication to further validate methods and results.	None
Songbird Grazing	June 2020	We will assess how avian community composition changes using adult abundance of multiple avian species. Avian abundance is known to change with vegetation heterogeneity and grazing is known to affect vegetation heterogeneity, therefore, we can track vegetative patterns that occur as a result of grazing by measuring changes in avian abundance. In addition, we will link songbird abundance and breeding activity to understand the fitness consequences for avian communities with respect to grazing regimes. Breeding effort can influence the persistence of populations and existing community structure. It is therefore important to understand how grazing can affect breeding activity.	Problem:<br>Approximately 75% of sagebrush associated bird species are declining nationally including several songbird species (e.g., Brewer’s sparrow, sage thrasher). Declines in sagebrush-associated avian species are congruent with significant losses of sagebrush ecosystems from human-induced changes.<br><br>Why it matters:<br>Domestic livestock grazing is a newly founded conservation tool used in parts of the western United States to benefit sagebrush steppe systems. Notably, conservation efforts to protect declining greater sage-grouse populations have implemented various grazing management strategies. The benefits of these conservation managed-grazing regimes for greater sage-grouse influence another avian species of conservation concerns is lacking.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>The project is a collaboration of resource managers and biologists across multiple agencies and non-governmental organizations and includes University of Montana, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Bureau of Land Management, Safari Club International Foundation, and US Fish and Wildlife Service.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>The project will determine how multiple migratory songbird species respond to conservation managed-grazing strategies. The songbird species response variables include community-level responses (e.g., species richness, species diversity, and community composition) and species-level responses (e.g., abundance/density, nest density, nesting success, fledging success). Thus, we will be able to inform land managers how and when during the songbird breeding season, conservation-based livestock grazing benefits these wildlife populations.
Statewide Mule Deer Study	February 2021	This study will provide needed information concerning migration, habitat selection, nutrition, and population dynamics in areas where these elements of mule deer ecology are poorly understood. Results from this study will help managers in these ecotypes better prescribe hunting seasons, understand public access opportunities or limitations related to deer population segments and seasonal distributions, and access the effects of whether, fire, and habitat management on deer dynamics with implications for managing sustained abundance and hunter opportunity.	Problem statement: <br>Mule deer populations in western Montana are considered to be in decline but little is known about why, or how the trend can be reversed. A suspected contributor is the decline of early-successional habitat across the variety of biomes mule deer inhabit in montane areas.<br><br>Why this research matters:<br>Managers need to know how and where methods for creating early successional habitat (prescribed fire, mechanical thinning, even-aged harvest) can be used to manage winter and summer range for mule deer in diverse forest habitats, but there are substantial questions about migratory behavior of mule deer, effects of disturbance on local flora, and efficacy of management actions on habitat quality.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>This project is being done in collaboration with University of Montana and Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (MFWP).<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>This project will, in part, result in a decision tool that will allow MFWP managers to weigh the costs and benefits of habitat management tools for both winter and summer ranges across western Montana.
Sapphire Elk Herd Research Technician	June 2017	Dr. Mike Mitchell and a research associate will work closely with Dr. Kelly Proffitt to develop a research project evaluating the effects of nutrition and hunter access on elk distribution in the Sapphire Mountains. The research associate will assist with the preparation of the final project report, assist with the development of habitat and nutrition models, and provide support to all aspects of the project. The Sapphire elk herd in hunting district 204 is located in Missoula’s backyard, and as such provide important hunting and recreational opportunities. Recently, landowners and sportsmen from this area have approached MFWP with concerns regarding problematic elk distribution and the current elk management objectives. In response, FWP initiated a research project to collect additional information regarding elk distribution and public attitudes towards elk management objectives. This information will be used to better understand what proportions of elk are currently migratory and how elk are using the landscape. Specifically, the project will evaluate the effects of hunter access and nutrition, as well as other factors such as road density, security cover, etc., on elk distribution during the hunting seasons. This effort is similar to ongoing work in the Yellowstone area and Missouri River Breaks, and it will add information regarding nutritional resources into elk distribution models developed from these other herds. Better understanding the role of nutrition in affecting fall distributions will allow the effects of habitat treatments on fall elk distribution to be predicted, and potentially manipulated to affect a more desirable elk distribution	None
Linking Exposure to Sub-lethal Stressors to Individual Vital Rates and Population Abundance	September 2021	1. Sample across a gradient of wetlands with differing levels of brine contamination in the Prairie Pothole region of the Williston Basin (Montana and North Dakota). The contamination index (CI), which measures the ratio of chloride to specific conductance in water (Reiten and Tischmak 1993), is a well-established measure of brine intrusion in the region. (Note: This component is already being done by B. Hossack and others.) 2. Estimate abundance and community richness of amphibian larvae in reference wetlands and wetlands impacted by energy development in the Williston Basin of North Dakota and Montana. This will be done using ≥2 capture sessions with unbaited minnow traps. For tiger salamanders, we will batch-mark larvae based on capture session and estimate abundance with capture-mark-recapture methods. For frog larvae that are less amenable to marking, we will use N-mixture models to estimate abundance. Community richness will be estimated using the pooled dataset.	Problem:<br>Wildlife management will be more effective and less expensive when managers can quickly identify populations that are most susceptible to decline. This challenge is especially large for species with complex life cycles that depend upon both aquatic and terrestrial environments.<br> <br>Why it matters:<br>Stressors such as increased salinity are increasing globally, including on DOI lands such as National Wildlife Refuges.<br> <br>Collaboration:<br>The project is a collaboration of researchers and managers from USGS, University of Montana, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service.<br> <br>Informing decisions:<br>This goal of this research is to identify tools that will allow us to link sublethal exposures to contaminants to individual-level vital rates to population abundance. The resulting data will represent a novel approach to investigating the potential impacts of contamination on aquatic communities.
Boom, bust: linking patterns of rural land-use change and wetland condition to trends in greater sandhill crane demographics	June 2017	Plan of work outlines implementation of a spatially explicit monitoring and evaluation project to document landscape change influencing the Rocky Mountain population (RMP) of greater sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis tabida; herein cranes) by mapping range wide fragmentation rates in keystone summer and staging habitats. The study will identify key stressors driving demographic trends on private and public lands by linking regional crane population data to patterns of land-use change and annual wetland condition over time and space (1996 – present). Results will provide decision support to Flyways and partners that inform species management through evaluation of habitat conditions that structure crane populations. Deliverables will provide information to prioritize conservation actions that strategically mitigate landscape level stressors and maximize the long term viability of RMP cranes.	None
Population dynamics, modeling, and data quality advancements	June 2017	IDFG uses integrated population models to help inform management decisions for mule deer. These models are implemented in the PopR framework hosted at the University of Montana. PopR is intended to provide a “one-stop-shop” for population analysis and data visualization. We will continue development of PopR for IDFG. • Improve implementation of sightability models The current sightability models do not account for all sources of variation. We will expand the current sightability models to more appropriately handle variation from detection, group size and sampling. • Include predictive fawn survival models Dr. Hurley developed predictive models for fawn survival. We will implement those models in PopR to allow for widespread application of the models within IDFG. • Expand and enhance herd composition analyses Herd composition analyses have traditionally been built off of binomial models or proportions. These estimators lead to unstable properties. We will implement multinomial models for herd composition analysis which will provide a more unified framework for future work. • Refine elk population models PopR currently only contains population models for mule deer. We will implement elk models developed by Nowak (2015) and tailor those models to meet the needs of IDFG. • Implement a harvest data exploration tab Harvest information is an important component of population management. Easy access to harvest statistics provides managers with detailed information related to harvest by location and year. We will develop an extension to the PopR interface that queries, displays and tabulates harvest statistics based on user specified criteria.	None
Wolverine monitoring analysis and reporting	June 2020	The multi-state wolverine monitoring program will produce a large amount of data and the resulting analysis will be complex. Given the importance of the data and scrutiny that the program will receive, a thorough and rigorous analysis is important. I will lead the analysis and reporting, working closely Dr. Jake Ivan. We will analyze the wolverine camera trapping data to estimate occupancy and distribution as functions of environmental covariates and spatial autocorrelation within the pre-defined wolverine sampling frame.	Problem:<br>Wolverines are notriously difficult to monitor because they are solitary, elusive, and occur at very low densities. Some data support concerns that wolverine populations are declining, possibly affecting listing and harvest decisions.<br><br>Why the research matters:<br>No reliable monitoring methodology or collaborative infrastructure exists across the western states where wolverines live. This project will provide means by which multiple states can monitor wolverines collaboratively, allowing managers to make effective decisions for managing the wolverine population they share in common.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>Cooperators include the University of Montana, Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Idaho Fish and Game, and Wyoming Game and Fish.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>By providing estimates of wolverine abundance and distribution across multiple states this work will contribute directly to decisions critical to wolverine management, including harvest, listing as an endangered species, and multi-agency efforts to conserve wolverines across their distribution in the northern Rockies.
Linking resources selection to population dynamics of Mule Deer in Idaho	December 2015	Project goal is to test the hypothesis that mule deer population productivity is related to resource selection, and to understand the mechanisms of how the trade-off between nutritional quality of habitat and predation risk determines population growth rate and carrying capacity of a landscape.	None
Bitterroot elk calf survival and population modeling	June 2016	Bitterroot elk calf survival and population modeling will be completed by a MS student.	Objective #1 is to estimate the relative importance of top-down, bottom-up, and abiotic processes for annual elk calf survival in a multiple carnivore system. Objective #2 is to develop an integrated population model (IPM) to conduct a retrospective sensitivity analysis of elk population dynamics.
Montana Wolf Monitoring Study	December 2020	Two PhD students will work with State collaborators to provide biological insights to enhance conservation and management of wolves in Montana.	Problem statement:<br>Wolves have recolonized western Montana and have been managed as a game species since they were delisted. Because they are species of strong interest to a diversity of public stakeholders, documentation of wolf abundance and effects of harvest must be transparent and scientifically rigorous. <br><br>Why this research matters:<br>Addressing these issues requires development of a monitoring system that is cost-effective, reliable, and accurate; missing knowledge of the biological mechanisms driving territoriality, pack size, and reproduction, however, can hamper robust estimation of abundance and the effects of harvest. <br><br>Collaboration:<br>This project is being conducted with Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks (MFWP). <br><br>Informing decisions:<br>This work will provide MFWP wolf managers with the tools needed to produce credible estimates of wolf abundance across Montana, and defensible harvest regulations in an adaptive management framework.
Evaluation of the effects of rest-rotation grazing on greater sage-grouse habitat and population dynamics in central Montana	October 2016	The proposed research is a continuation of an on-going, long-term study evaluating the effects of sage-grouse friendly livestock grazing strategies, created by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS).	Hen survival, nest success, and chick survival are the three most important factors influencing the population growth of sage-grouse. The study will measure vegetation response in pastures, identify movements by sage-grouse between grazed and rested pastures, create habitat-based measures of fitness which can be compared among grazing treatments, create a habitat-linked population model and quantify the population-level response of grazing treatments by indexing lek counts to population modeling results.
Evaluating the effects of nutrition and hunter access on elk distribution in the Sapphire Mountains	December 2017	Montana FWP has initiated a research project to collect additional information regarding elk distributions and public attitudes towards elk management in the Bitterroot Sapphire mountains.	Evaluate the effects of hunter access, nutrition, roads, and security on bull and cow elk distributions in the Sapphire Mountains. Lead the development of a manuscript related to elk ecology in the Sapphire Mountain area.
Improving ungulate sampling efficiency and population estimation in Idaho	December 2018	Implementation of integrated population modeling for informing ungulate management.	Problem:<br>Traditional estimation of mule deer and elk populations rely heavily on aerial surveys and radio telemetry. Safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness raise fundamental questions about how best to estimate such populations in the future. This study will research the cost/benefit analysis of helicopter use, survival rate, data weighting.<br><br>Why the research matters:<br>Managers face a fundamental trade-off when deciding on methodology for monitoring animal populations, are the data obtained worth the cost and potential risk to human life? This work quantifies such trade-offs, allowing managers to make such decisions objectively.<br><br>Collaboration:<br>Cooperators include the University of Montana and Idaho Fish and Game.<br><br>Informing decisions:<br>Given tightening budgets, increasing concerns about safety of personal, and growing expectations of the public for being reliably informed, this work will provide a timely means for managers to demonstrate optimal solutions for the monitoring decisions they make.
Linking resource selection to population dynamics of mule deer in Idaho	December 2016	To develop a web-based interface to the deer integrated population model.	To develop a web-based interface that runs the integrated population model, and to develop database interaction functionality for the population model for both data retrieval and storage.
Evaluating occupancy estimation and abundance relationships as an alternative method for ungulate abundance surveys	June 2017	Project will test a camera-based occupancy estimation method that exploits the steep side of the occupancy-abundance relationship to estimate ungulate abundance. Critical components of grid cell size, habitat relationships and camera distribution will be examined.	Idaho Dept. of Fish and Game, the University of Montana, and Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit are cooperatively initiating a graduate student research project to develop and test the feasibility of non-invasive methods to monitor ungulates in Idaho.

Research Publications

Research Publications	Publication Date
Şahin Arslan, N. and T. E. Martin. 2018. Reproductive biology of Grey-breasted Wood Wren (Henicorhina leucophrys): A comparative study of tropical and temperate wrens. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 131: 1-11.	March 2019
Zimova, M., L. S. Mills, P. M. Lukacs, and M. S. Mitchell. 2014. Snowshoe hares display limited phenotypic plasticity to mismatch in seasonal camouflage. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 281:20140029.	March 2014
Ton, R., and T. E. Martin. 2019. Nest Predation and Adult Mortality Relationships with Post-natal Metabolic Rates and Growth among Temperate and Tropical Songbirds. Journal of Experimental Biology 223: doi: 10.1242/jeb.226563. \| Abstract	September 2020	Variation in life history expression is thought to arise from selection acting through physiological mechanisms, but selection pressures may differ or even conflict between life stages. High offspring predation risk can favor fast growth rates among species that may be achieved by faster post-natal metabolic rates. Faster metabolism, on the other hand, may create costs for adults, such that species with low adult mortality rates may be expected to minimize such adult costs through slower metabolism. Thus, mortality at the two different life stages may differentially influence offspring metabolism. We tested these possibilities among 43 songbird species studied on three continents. We found that nest predation risk and adult mortality probability were indeed interactive in their association with offspring metabolic rates across species. Our results provide a rare example of ecological sources of mortality during different life stages being correlated with post-natal metabolic rate as a mechanism underlying offspring growth.
Ton, R., and T. E. Martin. 2015. Metabolism correlates with variation in post-natal growth rate among songbirds at three latitudes . Functional Ecology doi: 10.1111/1365-2435.12548.	November 2015
Ton, R, and T. E. Martin. 2017. Proximate effects of temperature versus evolved intrinsic constraints for embryonic development times among temperate and tropical songbirds. Scientific Reports 7(1), 895.	April 2017
Tewksbury, J. J., T. E. Martin, S. J. Hejl, W. Jenkins, and M. Kuehn. 2002. Parental care of a cowbird host: caught between the costs of egg-removal and nest predation. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 269: 423-429.	January 2002
Tewksbury, J. J., L. Garner, S. Garner, J. D. Lloyd, V. Saab, and T. E. Martin. 2006. Alternative hypotheses of landscape influence on nest predation and brood parasitism in fragmented ecosystems. Ecology:87(3), Pp. 759-768.	March 2006
Stetz, J. B., M. S. Mitchell, and K. C. Kendall. 2018. Evidence of Competition in Shaping Seasonal Density Patterns of Sympatric Ursids. Ecography. DOI: 10.1111/ecog.03556	April 2018
Sparklin, W. D. M. S. Mitchell, D. B. Jolley, and L. B. Hanson. 2009. Territoriality of feral pigs in a highly persecuted population on Fort Benning, Georgia Journal of Wildlife Management 73:497-502.	October 2008
Slevin, M. C., E. E. Bin Soudi, and T. E. Martin. 2020. Breeding Biology of Mountain Wren-Babbler (Gypsophila crassus). Wilson Journal of Ornithology 132(1):124-133.	January 2020
Sharp, N. W., M. S. Mitchell, and J. B. Grand. 2009. Sources, sinks, and spatial ecology of cotton mice in longleaf pine stands undergoing restoration. Journal of Mammalogy.	December 2009
Sells, S. N., and M. S. Mitchell. In press. The economics of territory selection. Ecological Modelling.	October 2020
Sells, S. N., S. B. Bassing, K. J. Barker, S. C. Forshee, A. C. Keever, J. W. Goerz, and M. S. Mitchell. 2018. Increased scientific rigor will improve reliability of research and effectiveness of management. Journal of Wildlife Management 82:485-494. DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21413.	March 2018
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, and J. A. Gude. 2019. Addressing disease risk to develop a health program for bighorn sheep in Montana. Chapter 14 in: Rung, M. C., S. J. Converse, J. E. Lyons, and D. R. Smith, editors, Case Studies in Decision Analysis for Natural Resource Management, Johns Hopkins Press.	July 2019
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, V. L. Edwards, J. A. Gude, and N. J. Anderson. Submitted. A Decision Analytical Approach to Proactive Management of Pneumonia Epizootics in Bighorn Sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management.	July 2016
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, J. J. Nowak, P. M. Lukacs, N. J. Anderson, J. M. Ramsey, and J. A. Gude. Submitted. Modeling Risk of Pneumonia Epizootics in Bighorn Sheep. Journal of Wildlife Management.	January 2015
Sells, S. N., C. M. Costello, P. M. Lukacs, L. L. Roberts, & M. A. Vinks. 2023. Predicted connectivity pathways between grizzly bear ecosystems in Western Montana. Biological Conservation, Volume 284, 110199, ISSN 0006-3207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.110199 \| Abstract \| Download	July 2023	Habitat and corridor mapping are key components of many conservation programs. Grizzly bear populations in the continental US are fragmented and connectivity among federal recovery areas is a conservation goal. Building on recent work, we modeled movements to predict areas of connectivity, using integrated step selection functions (iSSFs) developed from GPS-collared grizzly bears (F = 46, M = 19) in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem (NCDE). We applied iSSFs in a >300,000 km<sup>2</sup> area including the NCDE, Cabinet–Yaak (CYE), Bitterroot (BE), and Greater Yellowstone (GYE) Ecosystems. First, we simulated directed movements (randomized shortest paths with 3 levels of exploration) between start and end nodes across populations. Second, we simulated undirected movements from start nodes in the NCDE, CYE, or GYE (no predetermined end nodes). We summarized and binned results as iSSF classes (1 = lowest relative predicted use; 10 = highest relative predicted use) and evaluated predictions using 127 outlier grizzly bear locations. Connectivity pathways were primarily associated with mountainous areas and secondarily with river and stream courses in open valleys. Values at outlier locations indicated good model fit and mean iSSF classes at outlier locations (≥7.4) and Spearman rank correlations (≥0.87) were highest for undirected simulations and directed simulations with the highest level of exploration. Our resulting predictive maps will facilitate on-the-ground application of this research for prioritizing habitat conservation, human-bear conflict mitigation, and transportation planning. Additionally, our overall modeling approach has direct utility for myriad species and conservation applications.
Sells SN, Costello CM (2024) Predicting future grizzly bear habitat use in the Bitterroot Ecosystem under recolonization and reintroduction scenarios. PLOS ONE 19(9): e0308043. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0308043 \| Abstract \| Download	September 2024	Many conservation actions must be implemented with limited data. This is especially true when planning recovery efforts for extirpated populations, such as grizzly bears (<i>Ursus arctos</i>) within the Bitterroot Ecosystem (BE), where strategies for reestablishing a resident population are being evaluated. Here, we applied individual-based movement models developed for a nearby grizzly bear population to predict habitat use in and near the BE, under scenarios of natural recolonization, reintroduction, and a combination. All simulations predicted that habitat use by grizzly bears would be higher in the northern half of the study area. Under the natural recolonization scenario, use was concentrated in Montana, but became more uniform across the northern BE in Idaho over time. Use was more concentrated in east-central Idaho under the reintroduction scenario. Assuming that natural recolonization continues even if bears are reintroduced, use remained widespread across the northern half of the BE and surrounding areas. Predicted habitat maps for the natural recolonization scenario aligned well with outlier and GPS collar data available for grizzly bears in the study area, with Spearman rank correlations of ≥0.93 and mean class values of ≥9.1 (where class 10 was the highest relative predicted use; each class 1 – 10 represented 10% of the landscape). In total, 52.4% of outlier locations and 79% of GPS collar locations were in class 10 in our predicted habitat maps for natural recolonization. Simulated grizzly bears selected habitats over a much larger landscape than the BE itself under all scenarios, including multiple-use and private lands, similar to existing populations that have expanded beyond recovery zones. This highlights the importance of recognizing and planning for the role of private lands in recovery efforts, including understanding resources needed to prevent and respond to human-grizzly bear conflict and maintain public acceptance of grizzly bears over a large landscape.
Schwabl, H., M. G. Palacios, and T. E. Martin. 2007. Selection for rapid development leads to higher embryo exposure to maternal androgens among passerine species. American Naturalist 170: 196-206.	August 2007
Sarah N. Sells, Cecily M. Costello, Paul M. Lukacs, Frank T. van Manen, Mark Haroldson, Wayne Kasworm, Justin Teisberg, Milan A. Vinks, Dan Bjornlie. 2023. Grizzly bear movement models predict habitat use for nearby populations. Biological Conservation, Volume 279, 109940, ISSN 0006-3207, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2023.109940.	March 2023
Saalfeld, S. T., S. S. Ditchkoff, J. J. Ozaga, and M. S. Mitchell. 2007. Seasonal variation in sex ratios provides developmental advantages in white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus. Canadian Field Naturalist.	January 2009
S. S. Ditchkoff, B.L. Williams, M.S. Mitchell, J.B. Grand, and J.J> Millspaugh. Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolites in Wild Pig Populations Fluctuate Based on Reproductive Cycle. Wildlife Society Bulletin: 00(0): 000-000, 201X \| Abstract	February 2011	Wild pigs (Sus scrofa) pose considerable ecological problems as an invasive exotic. However, our understanding of many aspects of the ecology of this species is limited. Our goal was to examine the relationships between patterns of stress and reproductive behavior in a free ranging population of wild pigs through analysis of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites. We collected fecal samples from both trapped and hunter harvested animals between August 2004 and January 2006. Sexually mature pigs on Fort Benning had two seasons of elevated stress levels corresponding with two distinct periods of increased farrowing activity (March/April and July/August). For sexually mature females, fecal glucocorticoid levels were greater during the peak farrowing seasons than during the rest of the year. Fecal glucocorticoids in sexually mature males peaked during the periods immediately preceding each breeding season, and were at their lowest point during the peak farrowing seasons. Fecal glucocorticoid concentrations did not differ among sexually immature individuals of either sex between the breeding seasons and the rest of the year. Individuals collected from traps exhibited greater fecal glucocorticoid concentrations than individuals collected via hunter harvest. Mature males likely experienced their greatest levels of stress during the peak of the breeding season due to heightened breeding activity, and decreased stress during the peak of the farrowing season due to a decrease in breeding activity as the majority of receptive females were already pregnant. The timing of peak stress levels among both sexes of sexually mature animals and the lack of fluctuations in stress levels among sexually immature animals lead us to conclude that reproduction and the timing of peak reproductive activity are the major factors influencing stress among free-ranging wild pigs. This study has established baseline parameters of stress in wild pig populations, and highlights the temporal periods during which particular classes of animals experience the greatest levels of stress.
Ruprecht, J. S., D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, E. O. Garten, and P. Zager. 2012. Homesite attendance based on sex, breeding status, and number of helpers in gray wolf packs. Journal of Mammalogy 93:1001–1005.	September 2012
Runge, M.C., J.B. Grand, and M.S. Mitchell. 2013. Structured decision making. pp. 51-72. In P.R. Krausman and J.W. Cain eds. Wildlife Management and conservation: Contemporary principles and practices. Johns Hopkins Baltimore, Maryland.	January 2013
Runge, M.C., J.B. Grand, and M.S. Mitchell. 2013. Structured decision making. Pages 51-72 in P.R. Krausman and J.W. Cain III, editors. Wildlife Management and Conservation: Contemporary Principles and Practices. The Johns Hopkins University Press.	November 2014
Ruggera, R. A., and T. E. Martin. 2010. Breeding biology and natural history of the Slate-throated Whitestart in Venezuela. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 122: 447-454.	September 2010
Rosenblatt, E, Cook, J. D., DiRenzo, G.V., Grant, E.H.C., Arce, F., Pepin, K. M., Rudolph, J.F., Runge, M.C., Shriner, S., Walsh, D., and Mosher, B.A. 2023. Epidemiological modeling of SARS-CoV-2 in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) reveals conditions for introduction and widespread transmission. biorxiv.	September 2023
Roff, D. A., V. Reme', and T. E. Martin. 2005. The evolution of fledging age in songbirds. Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 18:1425-1433.	January 2005
Robinson, H., T. Ruth, J. A. Gude, D. Choate, R. DeSimone, M. Hebblewhite, K. Kunkel, M. R. Matchett, M. S. Mitchell, K. Murphy, and J. Williams. 2015. Linking Resource Selection and Mortality Modeling for Population Estimation of Mountain Lions in Montana. Ecological Modelling g 312: 11–25.	June 2015
Robinson, H, R. DeSimone, C. Hartway, J. Gude, M. Thompson, M. Mitchell and M. Hebblewhite. Submitted. A test of the compensatory mortality hypothesis in mountain lions: a management experiment in west-central Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management	June 2014
Robertson, E. P., D. P. Walsh, J. Martin, T. M. Work, C. A. Kellogg, J. S. Evans, V. Barker, A. Hawthorn, G. Aeby, V. J. Paul, B. K. Walker, Y. Kiryu, C. M. Woodley, J. L. Meyer, S. M. Rosales, M. Studivan, J. F. Moore, M. E. Brandt, and A. Bruckner. 2023. Rapid prototyping for quantifying belief weights of competing hypotheses about emergent diseases. Journal of Environmental Management 337: 117668. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117668. \| Abstract	July 2023	Emerging diseases can have devastating consequences for wildlife and require a rapid response. A critical first step towards developing appropriate management is identifying the etiology of the disease, which can be difficult to determine, particularly early in emergence. Gathering and synthesizing existing information about potential disease causes, by leveraging expert knowledge or relevant existing studies, provides a principled approach to quickly inform decision-making and management efforts. Additionally, updating the current state of knowledge as more information becomes available over time can reduce scientific uncertainty and lead to substantial improvement in the decision-making process and the application of management actions that incorporate and adapt to newly acquired scientific understanding. Here we present a rapid prototyping method for quantifying belief weights for competing hypotheses about the etiology of disease using a combination of formal expert elicitation and Bayesian hierarchical modeling. We illustrate the application of this approach for investigating the etiology of stony coral tissue loss disease (SCTLD) and discuss the opportunities and challenges of this approach for addressing emergent diseases. Lastly, we detail how our work may apply to other pressing management or conservation problems that require quick responses. We found the rapid prototyping methods to be an efficient and rapid means to narrow down the number of potential hypotheses, synthesize current understanding, and help prioritize future studies and experiments. This approach is rapid by providing a snapshot assessment of the current state of knowledge. It can also be updated periodically (e.g., annually) to assess changes in belief weights over time as scientific understanding increases. <i>Synthesis and applications</i>: The rapid prototyping approaches demonstrated here can be used to combine knowledge from multiple experts and/or studies to help with fast decision-making needed for urgent conservation issues including emerging diseases and other management problems that require rapid responses. These approaches can also be used to adjust belief weights over time as studies and expert knowledge accumulate and can be a helpful tool for adapting management decisions.
Rich, L. N., M. S. Mitchell, J. A. Gude, and C. A. Sime. 2012. Anthropogenic mortality, intraspecific competition, and prey availability structure territory sizes of wolves in Montana. Journal of Mammalogy 93:722-731.	June 2012
Rich, L. N., E. M. Glenn, M. S. Mitchell, J. A. Gude, R. E. Russell, C. A. Sime, D. E. Ausband, and J. D. Nichols. Submitted. Estimating occupancy and predicting numbers of gray wolf packs in Montana using hunter surveys. Journal of Wildlife Management 77:1280-1289.	July 2013
Reynolds-Hogland, M. J., and M. S. Mitchell. 2007. Three axes of ecological studies: Matching process and time in landscape ecology. IN J. A. Bissonette and I. Storch (eds) Temporal Dimensions of Landscape Ecology: Wildlife Responses to Variable Resources. Springer, New York. 10:174-194	January 2007
Reynolds-Hogland, M. J., and M. S. Mitchell. 2007. Road effects on habitat quality for black bears in the Southern Appalachians:a long term study. Journal of Mammalogy, 88(4):1062-107.	August 2007
Reynolds-Hogland, M. J., and M. S. Mitchell. 2006. Spatio-temporal availability of soft mast in clearcuts in the Southern Appalachians. Forest Ecology and Management 237:103-114.	December 2006
Reynolds-Hogland, M. J., M. S. Mitchell, R. A. Powell, and D. C. Brown. 2007. Selection of den sites by black bears in the Southern Appalachians. Journal of Mammology, 88(4):1062-1073.	August 2007
Reynolds-Hogland, M. J., L. B. Pacifici, and M. S. Mitchell. 2007. Linking resources with demography to understand resource limitation for bears. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44:1166-1175.	December 2007
Reynolds-Hogland, M. J., J. S. Hogland, M. S. Mitchell. 2007. Evaluating intercepts from demograhic models to understand resource limitation and thresholds. Ecological Modeling, 211:424-432.	November 2007
Reynolds, M. J., and M. S. Mitchell. 2007. Three Axes of Ecological Studies: Matching Process and Time in Landscape Ecology. In Bissonette, J. A., and I. Storch, editors, Temporal Explicitness in Landscape Ecology: Wildlife Responses to Changes in Time. Springer, New York, NY.	April 2007
Remes, V., and T. E. Matin. 2002. Environmental influences on the evolution of growth and development rates in passerines. Evolution 56(12): 2505-2518.	December 2002
Prentice, M.B., M.L.J. Gilbertson, D.J. Storm, W.C. Turner, D.P. Walsh, M.E. Pinkerton, P.L Kamath. 2024. Metagenomic sequencing sheds light on microbes putatively associated with pneumonia-related fatalities of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), Microbial Genomics, 10:001214. https://doi.org/10.1099/mgen.0.001214	March 2024
Powell, R. A., and M. S. Mitchell. 2012. What is a home range? Journal of Mammalogy 93:948-958.	September 2012
Piel III, R. B., S. E. Veneziano, E. Nicholson, D. P. Walsh, A. D. Lomax, T. A. Nichols, C. M. Seabury, and D. A. Schneider. 2024. Validation of a Real-Time Quaking-Induced Conversion (RT-QuIC) Assay Protocol to Detect Chronic Wasting Disease using Rectal Mucosa of Naturally Infected, Pre-Clinical White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus). PLoS ONE 19(6): e0303037. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0303037 \| Abstract	June 2024	Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal prion disease of cervids spreading across North America. More effective mitigation efforts may require expansion of the available toolkit to include new methods that provide earlier antemortem detection, higher throughput, and less expense than current immunohistochemistry (IHC) methods. The rectal mucosa near the rectoanal junction is a site of early accumulation of CWD prions and is safely sampled in living animals by pinch biopsy. A fluorescence-based, 96-well format, protein-aggregation assay—the real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay—is capable of ultra-sensitive detection of CWD prions. Notably, the recombinant protein substrate is crucial to the assay's performance and is now commercially available. In this blinded independent study, the preclinical diagnostic performance of a standardized RT-QuIC protocol using a commercially sourced substrate (MNPROtein) and a laboratory-produced substrate was studied using mock biopsy samples of the rectal mucosa from 284 white-tailed deer (<i>Odocoileus virginianus)</i>. The samples were from a frozen archive of intact rectoanal junctions collected at depopulations of farmed herds positive for CWD in the United States. All deer were pre-clinical at the time of depopulation and infection status was established from the regulatory record, which evaluated the medial retropharyngeal lymph nodes (MRPLNs) and obex by CWD-IHC. A pre-analytic sample precipitation step was found to enhance the protocol’s detection limit. Performance metrics were influenced by the choice of RT-QuIC diagnostic cut points (minimum number of positive wells and assay time) and by deer attributes (preclinical infection stage and prion protein genotype). The peak overall diagnostic sensitivities of the protocol were similar for both substrates (MNPROtein, 76.8%; laboratory-produced, 73.2%), though each was achieved at different cut points. Preclinical infection stage and prion protein genotype at codon 96 (G = glycine, S = serine) were primary predictors of sensitivity. The diagnostic sensitivities in late preclinical infections (CWD-IHC positive MPRLNs and obex) were similar, ranging from 96% in GG96 deer to 80% in xS96 deer (x = G or S). In early preclinical infections (CWD-IHC positive MRPLNs only), the diagnostic sensitivity was 64-71% in GG96 deer but only 25% in xS96 deer. These results demonstrate that this standardized RT-QuIC protocol for rectal biopsy samples using a commercial source of substrate produced stratified diagnostic sensitivities similar to or greater than those reported for CWD-IHC but in less than 30 hours of assay time and in a 96-well format. Notably, the RT-QuIC protocol used herein represents a standardization of protocols from several previous studies. Alignment of the sensitivities across these studies suggests the diagnostic performance of the assay is robust given quality reagents, optimized diagnostic criteria, and experienced staff.
Parsons, E. W. R., J. L. Maron, and T. E. Martin. 2013. Elk herbivory alters small mammal assemblages in high elevation riparian drainages. Journal of Animal Ecology 82: 459-467. \| Abstract	February 2013	1. Heavy herbivory by ungulates can substantially alter habitat, but the indirect consequences of habitat modification for animal assemblages that rely on that habitat are not well studied. This is a particularly important topic given that climate change can alter plant-herbivore interactions. 2. We explored short-term responses of small mammal communities to recent exclusion of Rocky Mountain elk (Cervus elaphus) in high elevation riparian drainages in northern Arizona, where elk impacts on vegetation have increased over the past quarter century associated with climate change. We used 10 ha elk exclosures paired with unfenced control drainages to examine how browsing influenced the habitat use, relative abundance, richness, and diversity of a small mammal assemblage. 3. We found that the small mammal assemblage changed significantly after five years of elk exclusion. Relative abundance of voles (Microtus mexicanus) increased in exclosure drainages, likely due to an increase in habitat quality. The relative abundances of woodrats (Neotoma neomexicana) and two species of mice (Peromyscus maniculatus and P. boylii) decreased in the controls, while remaining stable in exclosures. The decline of mice in control drainages was likely due to the decline in shrub cover that they use. Thus, elk exclusion may have maintained or improved habitat for mice inside the exclosures while habitat quality and mouse abundance both declined outside the fences. Finally, small mammal species richness increased in the exclosures relative to the controls while species diversity showed no significant trends. 4. Together, our results show that relaxation of heavy herbivore pressure by a widespread native ungulate can lead to rapid changes in small mammal assemblages. Moreover, exclusion of large herbivores can yield rapid responses by vegetation that may enhance or maintain habitat quality for small mammal populations.
Palacios, M. G., and T. E. Martin. 2006. Incubation period and immune function: a comparative field study among coexisting birds. Oecologia 146:505-512.	March 2006
Oteyza, J. C., J. C. Mouton, and T. E. Martin. 2021. Adult survival probability and body size affect parental risk-taking across latitudes. Ecology Letters 24:20-26.	January 2021
Nowak, J. J., Hurley, M. A., Lukacs, P. M., Walsh, D., & White, C. L. (2023). Population Monitoring. In Ecology and Management of Black-tailed and Mule Deer of North America (pp. 291-306). CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003354628-19 \| Abstract	April 2023	This chapter describes the importance of population monitoring, a complex task with many interrelated parts. The theoretical foundation for monitoring lies in the random sample and the field of statistics. Effective survey design provides the building blocks for monitoring all relevant quantities in a general and reusable fashion. Population models help to formalize hypotheses, design monitoring programs, find efficient uses of resources, and make proactive assessments of management actions. By combining the guidance received from population models with strict sampling procedures, the state of the population can efficiently be established, which facilitates adoption of the scientific method and rigorous decision making.
Niklison, A., J. I. Areta, R. A. Ruggera, K. L. Decker, C. Bosque, and T. E. Martin. 2007. Natural history and breeding biology of the Rusty-breasted Antpitta (Grallaricula ferrugineipectus). Wilson Journal of Ornithology 120: 345-352.	June 2008
Newby, J. R., L. S. Mills, T. K. Ruth, D. H. Pletscher, M. S. Mitchell, H. B. Quigley, K. M. Murphy, and R. DeSimone. 2013. Human-caused mortality influences spatial population dynamics: Pumas in landscapes with varying mortality risks. Biological Conservation 159:230-239.	April 2013
Nalwanga, D., P. Lloyd, M. A. duPlessis, and T. E. Martin. 2004. The influence of nest site characteristics on the nesting success of Karoo Prinia. Ostrich 75: 269-274.	September 2004
Nalwanga, D., P. Lloyd, M. A. duPlessis, and T. E. Martin. 2004. Nest-site partitioning in a strandveld shrubland bird community. Ostrich 75: 250-258	September 2004
Muñoz and Martin. 2014. Breeding biology of the Spotted Barbtail (Premnoplex brunnescens). Wilson Journal of Ornithology 126: 717-727.	December 2014
Muir, J. A., D. Licata, and T. E. Martin. 2008. Reproductive biology of the Red-ruffed Fruitcrow (Pyroderus scutatus granadensis). Wilson Journal of Ornithology 120: 862-867.	November 2008
Mouton, J. C., and T. E. Martin. 2019. Nest structure affects auditory and visual detectability, but not predation risk, in a tropical songbird community. Functional Ecology 33:1973–1981.	October 2019
Mouton, J. C. and T. E. Martin. 2018. Fitness consequences of interspecific nesting associations among cavity nesting birds. American Naturalist 192: 389–396.	September 2018
Mouton J. C., B. W. Tobalske, N. A. Wright, and T. E. Martin. 2020. Compensatory plasticity offsets performance and survival costs of predation risk across life stages. Functional Ecology https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13650.	September 2020
Morgan Henderson, M., M. Hebblewhite, M. S. Mitchell, J. B. Stetz, K. C. Kendall, and R. G. Carlson. 2015. Modeling multi-scale resource selection for bear rub trees in Northwestern Montana and Idaho. Ursus 26:28–39	January 2015
Monkkonen, M., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Sensitivity of comparative analyses to population variation in trait values: clutch size and cavity excavation tendencies. Journal of Avian Biology 31: 576-580	September 2000
Mitchell, M. S., and R. A. Powell. 2008. Estimated home ranges can misrepresent habitat relationships on patchy landscapes. Ecological Modelling 216:409-414.	October 2008
Mitchell, M. S., and R. A. Powell. 2007. Optimal use of resources structures, home ranges and spatial distribution of black bears. Animal Behaviour 74:219-230.	June 2007
Mitchell, M. S., and R. A. Powell. 2012. Foraging optimally for a home range. Journal of Mammalogy 93:917-928.	September 2012
Mitchell, M. S., and M. Hebblewhite. 2012. Carnivore habitat ecology: integrating theory and application. In Boitani and Powell, editors, Carnivore ecology and conservation: a handbook of techniques. Oxford University Press, London, UK.	January 2012
Mitchell, M. S., S. N. Sells, S. B. Bassing, K. J. Barker, A. C. Keever, S. C. Forshee, and J. W. Goerz. 2018. Explicitly reporting tests of hypotheses improves communication of science. Journal of Wildlife Management. DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21461.	May 2018
Mitchell, M. S., S. N. Sells, K. J. Barker, S. B. Bassing, A. C. Keever, S. C. Forshee, and J. W. Goerz. 2018. Testing A Priori Hypotheses Improves the Reliability of Wildlife Research. Journal of Wildlife Management. DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21568	August 2018
Mitchell, M. S., S. H. Rutzmoser, T. B. Wigley, C. Loehle, J. A. Gerwin, P. D. Keyser, R. A. Lancia, R. W. Perry, C. J. Reynolds, R. E. Thill, R. Weih, D. White, Jr., P. Bohall Wood. 2006. Relationships between avian richness and landscape structure at multiple scales using multiple landscapes. Forest Ecology and Management.	May 2006
Mitchell, M. S., M. J. Reynolds-Hogland, M. L. Smith, P. B. Wood, J. A. Beebe, P. D. Keyser, C. Loehle, C. J. Reynolds, and D. White, Jr. 2008. Projected long-term response of Southeastern birds to forest management. Forest Ecology and Management 256(2008):1884 1896.	October 2008
Mitchell, M. S., L. N. Rich, and L. S. Mills. 2014. Using radiotelemetry to answer habitat and population questions. In T. Tshering and L. S. Mills, editors, Wildlife Research Techniques in Rugged Mountainous Landscapes. Ugyen Wangchuk Institute for Conservation and Environment, Bhumtang, Bhutan.	January 2014
Mitchell, M. S., L. B. Pacifici, J. B. Grand, and R. A. Powell. 2009. Contributions of vital rates to growth of a protected population of American black bears. Ursus 20:77-84.	December 2009
Mitchell, M. S., J. A. Gude, N. Anderson, J. Ramsey, M. Thompson, M. Sullivan, V. Edwards, C. Gower, J. F. Cochrane, E. Irwin, and T. Walshe. 2013. Using structured decision making to manage disease risk for Montana wildlife. Wildlife Society Bulletin 37:107-114.	April 2013
Mitchell, M. S., J. A. Gude, D. E. Ausband, C. A. Sime, E. E. Bangs, M. D. Jimenez, C. M. Mack, T. J. Meier, and M. S. Nadeau. 2010. Temporal validation of an estimator for successful breeding pairs of wolves Canis lupus in the U.S. northern Rocky Mountains. Wildlife Biology. Wildlife Biology 16:101-106.	April 2010
Mitchell, M. S., H. Cooley, J. A. Gude, J. Kolbe, J. J. Nowak, K. M. Proffitt, S. N. Sells, and M. Thompson. 2018. Distinguishing values from science in decision making: setting harvest quotas for mountain lions in western Montana . Wildlife Society Bulletin DOI:10.1002/wsb.861.	April 2018
Mitchell, M. S., D. E. Ausband, C. A. Sime, E. E. Bangs, M. Jimenez, C. M. Mack, T. J. Meier, M. S. Nadeau, and D. W. Smith. 2008. Estimation of successful breeding pairs for wolves in the U. S. northern Rocky Mountains. Journal of Wildlife Management 72:881-891.	May 2008
Mitchell, A. E., F. Tuh, and T. E. Martin. 2016. Breeding biology of an endemic Bornean turdid: Fruithunter (Chlamydochaera jefferyi). Wilson Journal of Ornithology 129(1), 36-45.	March 2017
Miller, D. A. W, J. D. Nichols1, J. A. Gude3, L. N. Rich, K. M. Podruzny, J. E. Hines, and M. S. Mitchell. 2013. Determining Occurrence Dynamics when False Positives Occur: Estimating the Range Dynamics of Wolves from Public Survey Data. PLoS ONE 8(6): e65808. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065808.	June 2013
Merkle, J. A., N. J. Anderson, D. L. Baxley, M. Chopp, L. C. Gigliotti, J. A. Gude, T. M. Harms, H. E. Johnson, E. H. Merrill, M. S. Mitchell, T. W. Wong, G. P. Nelson, A. S. Norton, M. J. Sheriff, E. Tomasik, and K. R. VanBeek. 2019. A collaborative approach to bridging the gap between wildlife managers and researchers. Journal of Wildlife Management 83:1644–1651; DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21759	August 2019
McCall, B.S., M.S. Mitchell, M.K. Schwartz, J. Hayden, S. Cushman, and W. Kasworm. 2013. Combined use of mark-recapture and genetic analyses reveals response of a black bear population to changes in food productivity. Journal of Wildlife Management 77:1572-1582.	October 2013
Massaro, M., A. Starling-Windhof, J. V. Briskie, and T. E. Martin. 2008. Introduced mammalian predators induce adaptive shifts in parental behaviour in an endemic New Zealand bird. PLoS One 3(6): e2331. doi:10. 1371/journal. pone. 0002331	May 2008
Martin, T.E., R.D. Bassar, S.K. Bassar, J.J. Fontaine, P. Lloyd, H. Mathewson, A. Niklison, and A. Chalfoun. 2006. Life history and ecological correlates of geographic variation in egg and clutch mass among passerine species. Evolution 60:390-398 \| Abstract \| Download	April 2006	Broad geographic patterns in egg and clutch mass are poorly described, and potential causes of variation remain largely unexamined. We describe interspecific variation in avian egg and clutch mass within and among diverse geographic regions and explore hypotheses related to allometry, clutch size, nest predation, adult mortality, and parental care as correlates and possible explanations of variation. We studied 74 species of Passeriformes at four latitudes on three continents: the north temperate United States, tropical Venezuela, subtropical Argentina, and south temperate South Africa. Egg and clutch mass increased with adult body mass in all locations, but differed among locations for the same body mass, demonstrating that egg and clutch mass have evolved to some extent independent of body mass among regions. A major portion of egg mass variation was explained by an inverse relationship with clutch size within and among regions, as predicted by life-history theory. However, clutch size did not explain all geographic differences in egg mass; eggs were smallest in South Africa despite small clutch sizes. These small eggs might be explained by high nest predation rates in South Africa; life-history theory predicts reduced reproductive effort under high risk of offspring mortality. This prediction was supported for clutch mass, which was inversely related to nest predation but not for egg mass. Nevertheless, clutch mass variation was not fully explained by nest predation, possibly reflecting interacting effects of adult mortality. Tests of the possible effects of nest predation on egg mass were compromised by limited power and by counterposing direct and indirect effects. Finally, components of parental investment, defined as effort per offspring, might be expected to positively coevolve. Indeed, egg mass, but not clutch mass, was greater in species that shared incubation by males and females compared with species in which only females incubate eggs. However, egg and clutch mass were not related to effort of parental care as measured by incubation attentiveness. Ecological and life-history correlates of egg and clutch mass variation found here follow from theory, but possible evolutionary causes deserve further study.
Martin, T.E., P.R. Martin, C.R. Olson, B.J. Heidinger, and J.J. Fontaine. 2000. Parental care and clutch sizes in North and South American birds. Science 287:1482-1485. \| Abstract \| Download	December 2000	The evolutionary causes of small clutch sizes in tropical and Southern Hemisphere regions are poorly understood. Alexander Skutch proposed 50 years ago that higher nest predation in the south constrains the rate at which parent birds can deliver food to young and thereby constrains clutch size by limiting the number of young that parents can feed. This hypothesis for explaining differences in clutch size and parental behaviors between latitudes has remained untested. Here, a detailed study of bird species in Arizona and Argentina shows that Skutch’s hypothesis explains clutch size variation within North and South America. However, neither Skutch’s hypothesis nor two major alternatives explain differences between latitudes.
Martin, T.E., P. Lloyd, C. Bosque, D.C. Barton, A.L. Biancucci, Y.R. Cheng, and R. Ton. 2011. Growth rate variation among passerine species in tropical and temperate sites: An antagonistic interaction between parental food provisioning and nest predation risk. Evolution 65(6):1607-1622.	June 2011
Martin, T.E., E. Arriero, and A. Majewska. 2011. A trade-off between embroyonic development rate and immune function of avian offspring is revealed by considering embroyic temperature. Biol. Lett. 7:425-428.	June 2011
Martin, T. E., and J. L. Maron. 2012. Climate impacts on bird and plant communities from altered animal-plant interactions. Nature Climate Change 2: 195-200. \| Abstract	February 2012	The contribution of climate change to declining populations of organisms remains a question of outstanding concern1-3. Much attention to declining populations has focused on how changing climate drives phenological mismatches between animals and their food4-6. Effects of climate on plant communities may provide an alternative, but particularly powerful, influence on animal populations because plants provide their habitats. Here, we show that abundances of deciduous trees and associated songbirds have declined with decreasing snowfall over 22 years of study in montane Arizona, USA. We experimentally tested the hypothesis that declining snowfall indirectly influences plants and associated birds by allowing greater over-winter herbivory by elk (Cervus canadensis). We excluded elk from one of two paired snow-melt drainages (10 ha/drainage), and replicated this paired experiment across three distant canyons. Over six years, we reversed multi-decade declines in plant and bird populations by experimentally inhibiting heavy winter herbivory associated with declining snowfall. Moreover, predation rates on songbird nests decreased in exclosures, despite higher abundances of nest predators, demonstrating the over-riding importance of habitat quality to avian recruitment. Thus, our results suggest that climate impacts on a plant-animal interaction can have forceful ramifying effects on plants, birds, and ecological interactions.
Martin, T. E., and H. Schwabl. 2008 Variation in maternal effects and embryonic development rates among passerine species. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 363: 1663-1674.	March 2008
Martin, T. E., S. K. Auer, R. D. Bassar, A. M. Niklison, P. Lloyd. 2007. Geographic variation in avian incubation periods and parental influences on embryonic temperature. Evolution, 61-11:2558-2569.	November 2007
Martin, T. E., R. Ton, and J. C. Oteyza. 2018. Adaptive influence of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on variation of incubation periods among tropical and temperate passerines. Auk 135: 101-113.	January 2018
Martin, T. E., R. Ton, and A. Niklison. 2013. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic influences on life history expression: metabolism and parentally-induced temperature influences on embryo development rate. Ecology Letters 16: 738-745. \| Abstract	April 2013	Intrinsic processes are assumed to underlie life history expression and trade-offs, but extrinsic inputs are theorized to shift trait expression and mask trade-offs within species. Here, we explore application of this theory across species. We do this based on parentally-induced embryo temperature as an extrinsic input, and mass-specific embryo metabolism as an intrinsic process, underlying embryonic development rate. We found that embryonic metabolism followed intrinsic allometry rules among 49 songbird species from temperate and tropical sites. Extrinsic inputs via parentally-induced temperatures explained the majority of variation in development rates and masked a relationship with metabolism; metabolism explained a minor proportion of the variation in development rates among species, and only after accounting for temperature effects. We discuss evidence that temperature further obscures the expected inter-specific trade-off between development rate and offspring quality. These results demonstrate the importance of considering extrinsic inputs to trait expression and trade-offs across species.
Martin, T. E., R. D. Bassar, S. K. Bassar, J. J. Fontaine, P. Lloyd, H. Mathewson, A. Niklison, and A. Chalfoun. 2006. Life history and ecological correlates of geographic variation in egg and clutch mass among passerine species. Evolution 60:390-398.	March 2006
Martin, T. E., P. R. Martin, C. R. Olson, B. J. Heidinger, and J. J. Fontaine. 2000. Parental care and clutch sizes in North and South American birds. Science 287: 1482 1485.	October 2000
Martin, T. E., M. M. Riordan, R. Repin, J. C. Mouton, and W. M. Blake. 2017. Apparent annual survival estimates of tropical songbirds better reflect life history variation when based on intensive field methods. Global Ecology and Biogeography 26:1386–1397.	December 2017
Martin, T. E., J. Scott, and C. Menge. 2000. Nest predation increases with parental activity: separating nest site and parental activity effects. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B. 267:2287-2293.	November 2000
Martin, T. E., J. C. Oteyza, A. J. Boyce, P. Lloyd, and R. Ton. 2015. Adult mortality probability and nest predation rates explain parental effort in warming eggs with consequences for embryonic development time. American Naturalist 186: 223-236. \| Abstract	August 2015	The time that embryos take to develop is thought to affect mortality in later life because of physiological trade-offs associated with development time. Yet, an unexplored alternative hypothesis suggests that mortality may be the cause rather than consequence of embryo development time in birds; adult and offspring mortality may exert selection on parental effort in warming eggs to thereby determine embryo development times. We examined these possibilities based on field studies of 64 songbird species on four continents. Structural equation modeling showed that an association of age-specific mortality and embryonic development time was best explained by mortality as a cause of average embryonic temperature. Influence of age-specific mortality on parental effort in warming eggs is a unique result that follows from life history theory and provides a causal mechanism for explaining variation in embryonic development time across diverse species.
Martin, T. E., J. C. Oteyza, A. E. Mitchell, A. L. Potticary, and P. Lloyd. 2015. Post-natal growth rates of diverse songbird species covary weakly with embryonic development rates and do not explain adult mortality probability. American Naturalist 185: 380-389.	March 2015
Martin, T. E., B. Tobalske, M. M. Riordan, S. Case, and K. P. Dial. 2018. Age and performance at fledging is a cause and consequence of juvenile mortality between life stages. Science Advances 4: eaar1988. \| Abstract	June 2018	Should they stay or should they leave? That is a critical question facing young birds in a nest as they mature. The answer has ramifications for juvenile mortality, an important influence on demography and fitness, but differs among species and the reasons why are unclear. The probability of young being eaten increases with each day they remain in the nest. We show that species at greater risk leave the nest at a younger age with less developed wings that cause poorer flight performance and greater subsequent mortality. Experimentally delayed fledging verifies that older age and better developed wings reduce juvenile mortality. Fitness benefits of staying in the nest to reduce fledgling mortality are opposed by nest predation costs, and parents and offspring conflict on the optimal resolution. Ultimately, fledging age and associated offspring development balance mortality in and out of the nest in a compromise between parents and offspring.
Martin, T. E., A. P. Moller, S. Merino, and J. Clobert. 2001. Does clutch size evolve in response to parasites and immunocompetence? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98: 2071-2076.	February 2001
Martin, T. E., A. J. Boyce, K. Fierro-Calderón, A. E. Mitchell, C. E. Armstad, J. Mouton, and E. E. Bin Soudi. 2017. Do enclosed nests provide greater thermal than nest predation benefits compared with open nests across latitudes? Functional Ecology 31: 1231-1240.	August 2017
Martin, T. E. and J. V. Briskie. 2009. Predation on dependent offspring: a review of the consequences for mean expression and phenotypic plasticity in avian life history traits. The Year in Evolutionary Biology 2009: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1168: 201-217.	June 2009
Martin, T. E. and J. C. Mouton. 2020. Longer-lived tropical songbirds reduce breeding activity as they buffer impacts of drought. Nature Climate Change 10: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-020-0864-3.	September 2020
Martin, T. E. 2015. Consequences of habitat change and resource selection specialization for population limitation in cavity-nesting birds. Journal of Applied Ecology 52: 475–485. \| Abstract	April 2015	Summary. 1. Resource selection specialization may increase vulnerability of populations to environmental change. One environmental change that may negatively impact some populations is the broad decline of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), a preferred nest tree of cavity-nesting organisms who are commonly limited by nest-site availability. However, the long-term consequences of this habitat change for cavity-nesting bird populations are poorly studied. 2. I counted densities of woody plants and eight cavity-nesting bird species (six woodpeckers, Mountain Chickadee Poecile gambeli, House Wren Troglodytes aedon) over 29 years in 15 high elevation riparian drainages in Arizona, USA. I also studied nest tree use and specialization over time based on 4946 nests across species. 3. Aspen suffered a severe decline in availability over time, while understory woody plants and canopy canyon maple (Acer grandidentatum) also declined. The decline of understory plants resulted from increased elk (Cervus canadensis) browsing linked to declining snowfall, and the lack of tree recruitment caused the decline in canopy aspen and maple. 4. All six woodpecker species exhibited very high specialization (>95% of nests) on aspen for nesting, and densities of all species declined with aspen over time. Mountain Chickadees and House Wrens exhibited increasingly less specialization on aspen. Chickadees strongly increased in density over time, despite a relatively high specialization on aspen. Nest sites clearly were not limiting their population. House Wren densities declined modestly over time, but nest box addition experiments demonstrated that nest-site availability was not limiting their population. House Wren densities increased with understory vegetation recovery in elk exclosures compared with controls, demonstrating that the decline in understory vegetation on the broader landscape was the cause of their population decline. The increased densities in exclosures were facilitated by increased generalization in nest site use. 5. Synthesis and applications: Management should target species that specialize in resource selection on a declining resource, because these species are vulnerable to population problems. Species with greater resource selection generalization can reduce population impacts of environmental change. Resource generalization can allow a species, like the wren, to take advantage of a habitat refuge, such as provided by the elk exclosures. Yet, when habitat on the broader landscape is declining in quality, or higher quality refuges are lacking, then resource generalization cannot offset the broader negative changes, as demonstrated by the decline in wrens on the broader landscape. Ultimately, aspen is an important habitat for biodiversity, and land management programs need to protect and aid recovery of aspen habitats.
Martin, T. E. 2008. Egg size variation among tropical and temperate songbirds: An embryonic temperature hypothesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 105:9268-9271	July 2008
Martin, T. E. 2007. Climate correlates of 20 years of trophic changes in a high elevation riparian system. Ecology 88: 367-380.	February 2007
Martin, T. E. 2004. Avian life-history evolution has an eminent past: does it have a bright future? The Auk 121:289-301	April 2004
Martin, T. E. 2002. A new view for avian life history evolution tested on an incubation paradox. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 269: 309-316.	January 2002
Martin, T. E. 2001. Abiotic vs. biotic influences on habitat selection of coexisting species, with implications for climate change. Ecology 82: 175-188.	January 2001
Martin, T. E. Age-related mortality explains life history strategies of tropical and temperate songbirds. Science 349: 966-970.	August 2015
Martin, T. E. 2014. A conceptual framework for clutch size evolution in songbirds. American Naturalist 183: 313-324. \| Abstract	March 2014	Mechanistic causes of evolved differences in clutch size among species remain debated. I propose a new theory (collection of hypotheses) that integrates aspects of prior hypotheses, while also including novel elements, to explain evolution of clutch size differences among species. I postulate that selection by nest predation on length of time that offspring remain in the nest and locomotor development at fledging determines mobility and extent of self-feeding of fledglings. Species with high nest predation risk produce fledglings with low mobility and slower development of self-feeding that require greater parental energy expenditure per offspring. The greater energy demands of less mobile fledglings constrain the number of offspring that parents can raise compared with species that have low nest predation risk. Differences in mobility also can potentially yield differences in fledgling survival among species and, thereby, influence the adaptive age of fledging. Finally, differences in adult mortality are proposed to favor evolution of differences in total parental energy expenditure among species to further influence clutch sizes. Data from the literature and from my Arizona site are used to provide initial, although indirect, support for several elements of this proposed theory, but more detailed tests are needed.
Martin, T. E. 2011. The cost of fear. Science 334: 1353-1354. \| Abstract \| Publisher Website	December 2011	no abstract
Martin, P. R., and T. E. Martin. 2001. Ecological and fitness consequences of coexistence in two congeneric wood warblers (Parulidae: Vermivora): a removal experiment. Ecology 82: 189-206.	January 2001
Martin, P. R., and T. E. Martin. 2001. Behavioral interactions between two coexisting wood warblers (Parulidae: Vermivora): experimental and empirical tests. Ecology 82: 207-218.	January 2001
Mandujano Reyes, J. F., T. F. Ma, I. P. McGahan, D. J. Storm, D. P. Walsh and J. Zhu. 2023. Spatio-temporal ecological models via physics-informed neural net- works for studying chronic wasting disease. Spatial Statistics 62:100850. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.spasta.2024.100850 \| Abstract	August 2024	To mitigate the negative effects of emerging wildlife diseases in biodiver-<br>sity and public health it is critical to accurately forecast pathogen dissemi-<br>nation while incorporating relevant spatio-temporal covariates. Forecasting<br>spatio-temporal processes can often be improved by incorporating scientific<br>knowledge about the dynamics of the process using physical models. Eco-<br>logical diffusion equations are often used to model epidemiological processes<br>of wildlife diseases where environmental factors play a role in disease spread.<br>Physics-informed neural networks (PINN) are deep learning algorithms that<br>constrain neural network predictions based on physical laws and therefore<br>are powerful forecasting models useful even in cases of limited and imperfect<br>training data. In this paper, we develop a novel ecological modeling tool<br>using PINNs, which fits a feedforward neural network and simultaneously<br>performs parameter identification in a partial differential equation (PDE)<br>with varying coefficients. We demonstrate the applicability of our model by<br>comparing it with the commonly used Bayesian stochastic partial differential<br>equation method and traditional machine learning approaches, showing that<br>our proposed model exhibits superior prediction and forecasting performance when modeling chronic wasting disease in deer in Wisconsin. Furthermore,<br>our model provides the opportunity to obtain scientific insights about spatio-<br>temporal covariates affecting spread and growth of diseases. This work con-<br>tributes to future machine learning and statistical developments with the<br>objective of studying spatio-temporal processes enhanced by prior physical<br>knowledge.
M. S. Mitchell, J. A. Gude, K. Podruzny, E. E. Bangs, J. Hayden, R. M. Inman, M. Jimenez, Q. Kujala, D. H. Pletscher, J. Rachael, R. Ream, and J. Vore. Submitted. Management of wolves in the US Northern Rocky Mountains is Based on Sound Policy and Science. Science.	June 2016
Lukacs, P. M., M. S. Mitchell, M. Hebblewhite, B. K. Johnson, H. Johnson, M. Kauffman, K. Proffitt, P. Zager, J. Brodie, K. Hersey, A. A. Holland, M. Hurley, S. McCorquodale, A. Middleton, M. Nordhagen, J. J. Nowak, D. P. Walsh, and P. J. White. 2018. Factors influencing elk recruitment across ecotypes in the western United States. Journal of Wildlife Management DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21438	May 2018
Lowe, W. H., T. E. Martin, D. K. Skelly, and H. A. Woods. 2020. Metamorphosis in an era of increasing climate variability. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 36: 360-375. \| Abstract	January 2021	Most animals have complex life cycles including some form of metamorphosis, a life stage transition in which individuals may be particularly vulnerable to environmental stressors.<b><i> </i></b>With climate change, individuals will be exposed to increasing thermal and hydrologic variability during metamorphosis, which may affect survival and performance through physiological, behavioral, and ecological mechanisms.<b> </b>Furthermore, because metamorphosis entails changes in traits and vital rates during a period of particular sensitivity, it is likely to play an important role in how populations respond to increasing climate variability. To identify mechanisms underlying population responses and associated trait and life history evolution, we need new approaches to estimate changes in individual traits and performance throughout metamorphosis, as well as new analytical models integrating metamorphosis as an explicit life stage.
Loonam, K. L., P. M. Lukacs, D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, and H. R. Robinson. 2021. Assessing the robustness of a new method for estimating wildlife abundance using remote cameras. Ecological Applications. e02388. 10.1002/eap.2388	August 2021
Loonam, K. E., D. E. Ausband, P. M. Lukacs, M. S. Mitchell, and H. R. Robinson. 2021. Estimating abundance of an unmarked, low-density species using camera traps. Journal of Wildlife Management. 85: 87-96. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.21950	March 2021
Lomáscolo, S., A. C. Monmany, A. Malizia, and T. E. Martin. 2010. Flexibility in nest site choice and nest success of Turdus rufiventris (Turdidae) in a montane forest in northwestern Argentina. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 122:674-680.	October 2010
Loehle, C., P. Van Deusen, T. B. Wigley, M. S. Mitchell, S. H. Rutzmoser, J. Aggett, J. A. Beebe, and M. L. Smith. 2006. A Method for Landscape Analysis of Forestry Guidelines Using Bird Habitat Models and the Habplan Harvest Scheduler. Forest Ecology and Management 232:56-67.	May 2006
Lloyd, P., and T. E. Martin. 2016. Fledgling survival increases with development time and adult survival across north and south temperate zones. Ibis 158: 135–143. \| Abstract	January 2016	Avian life history theory predicts that high adult survival and populations near carrying capacity favour reduced clutch size and increased investment per offspring to increase juvenile survival. Consistent with this hypothesis, south temperate and tropical birds are commonly longer-lived and have smaller clutch sizes. Yet, comparative analyses of juvenile survival are largely lacking. We measured post-fledging survival for eight south-temperate passerines in South Africa, and combined our measurements with estimates from a review of published studies from around the world to test two predictions: 1) survival through the first few weeks post-fledging increases with adult survival and reduced brood size, and 2) south temperate and tropical species exhibit higher post-fledging survival than north temperate species associated with higher adult survival and smaller brood sizes. Using post-fledging survival estimates for 73 passerine species, we found that variation in post-fledging survival across species was explained by region and not by adult survival or brood size. South temperate species had higher post-fledging survival than both north temperate and tropical species. Post-fledging survival did not differ between north temperate and tropical species, but tropical species were under-represented. Our results highlight that adult and juvenile mortality do not simply covary, but they both differ between the northern and southern temperate regions. Given the importance of age-specific mortality to life history evolution, understanding these geographic patterns of mortality is important.
Lloyd, P., W. A. Taylor, M. A. duPlessis, and T. E. Martin. 2009. Females increase reproductive investment in response to multiple helper benefits in the cooperatively breeding Karoo scrub-robin Cercotrichas coryphaeus. Journal of Avian Biology 40: 400-411.	July 2009
Lloyd, P., T. E. Martin, R. L. Redmond, U. Langner, and M. M. Hart. 2005. Linking demographic effects of habitat fragmentation across landscapes to continental source-sink dynamics. Ecological Applications 15: 1504-1514.	September 2005
Lloyd, P., T. E. Martin, R. L. Redmond, U. Langner, and M. M. Hart. 2005. Linking demographic effects of habitat fragmentation across landscapes to continental source-sink dynamics. Ecological Applications 15: 1504-1514.	December 2005
Lloyd, P., T. E. Martin, R. L. Redmond, M. M. Hart, U. Langner, and R. D. Bassar. 2006. Assessing the influence of spatial scale on the relationship between avian nesting success and forest fragmentation: a case study. Pp: 255-269 in J. Wu, K. B. Jones, H. Li, and O. Loucks (Editors) Scaling and Uncertainty Analysis In Ecology: Methods and Applications. Columbia University Press, New York, NY.	March 2006
Lloyd, P., T. E. Martin, A. Taylor, A. Braae and R. Altwegg. 2016. Age, sex, and social influences on adult survival in the co-operatively breeding Karoo scrub-robin. Emu 114: 394-401. \| Abstract	December 2016	Among cooperatively breeding species, helpers are hypothesised to increase the survival of breeders by reducing breeder workload in offspring care and increased group vigilance against predators. Furthermore, parental nepotism or other benefits of group living may provide a survival benefit to young that delay dispersal to help on the natal territory. We tested these hypotheses in the Karoo scrub-robin (Cercotrichas coryphaeus), a long-lived, facultative cooperatively breeding species of southern Africa in which male offspring delay dispersal until they obtain a breeding vacancy in a nearby territory, and helpers make substantial contributions to parental care. The hypothesis that helpers improve breeder survival was not clearly supported; annual apparent breeder survival in the presence of helpers (0.82) did not differ detectably from breeders without helpers (0.77). Survival of breeders that lost helpers (0.71) was lower, which may reflect a benefit of helpers or a poor territory. The hypothesis that helpers may gain a survival benefit from deferred breeding was not supported; male helpers had similar apparent survival as male breeders in the first year, and lower survival thereafter. Nonetheless, the relatively high survival of males through the first year following fledging (0.50) or independence (0.65) is consistent with high juvenile survival among species with delayed dispersal.
Lloyd, P., F. Abadi, R. Altwegg, and T. E. Martin. 2014. South-temperate birds have equivalent annual adult survival to tropical birds in Africa. Journal of Avian Biology 45: 493-500. \| Abstract	September 2014	Life history theory predicts a trade-off between annual adult survival and fecundity. Globally, clutch size shows a latitudinal gradient among birds, with south-temperate species laying smaller clutches than north-temperate species, but larger clutches than tropical species. Tropical birds often have higher adult survival than north-temperate birds associated with their smaller clutches. However, the prediction that tropical birds should also have higher adult survival than south-temperate birds because of smaller clutch sizes remains largely untested. We measured clutch size and annual adult survival for 17 south-temperate African species to test two main predictions. First, we found strong support for a predicted trade-off between adult survival and clutch size among the south temperate species, consistent with life-history theory. Second, we compared our clutch size and survival estimates with published estimates for congeneric tropical African species to test the prediction of larger clutch size and lower adult survival among south-temperate than related tropical species. We found that south-temperate species laid larger clutches, as predicted, but had higher, rather than lower, adult survival than related tropical species. The latter result may be an artefact of different approaches to measuring survival, but the results suggest that adult survival is generally high in the south temperate region.
Lloyd, P., B. D. Frauenknecht, M. A. du Plessis, and T. E. Martin. 2016. Comparative life history of the south-temperate Cape Penduline Tit (Anthoscopus minutus) and north-temperate Remizidae species. Journal of Ornithology doi:10.1007/s10336-016-1417-4. \| Abstract	December 2016	We studied the breeding biology of the south-temperate Cape Penduline Tit (Anthoscopus minutus) to enable a comparison of its life history with related, north-temperate members of the family Remizidae, namely Eurasian Penduline Tit (Remiz pendulinus) and Verdin (Auriparus flaviceps). We used this comparison to test key predictions of three hypotheses thought to explain latitudinal variation in life histories among bird species, the seasonality and food limitation hypothesis, nest predation hypothesis and adult mortality hypothesis. Contrary to the general pattern of smaller clutch size and lower adult mortality among south-temperate birds living in less seasonal environments, Cape Penduline Tit has a larger clutch size than Verdin, a clutch size similar to Eurasian Penduline Tit and higher adult mortality than both species. Cape Penduline Tit differs most notably in parental behavioural strategy, exhibiting bi-parental care at all stages of nesting together with facultative cooperative breeding, whereas Eurasian Penduline Tit has uni-parental care and Verdin has a combination of female-only incubation but bi-parental nestling care. Consequently, Cape Penduline Tit exhibits greater nest attentiveness during incubation, a greater per-nestling feeding rate and greater post-fledging survival. The relatively large clutch size, high nestling feeding rates and associated high adult mortality in Cape Penduline Tit in a less seasonal environment support key predictions of the adult mortality hypothesis and run counter to key predictions of the seasonality and food limitation hypothesis in explaining life history variation among Remizidae species. These results add to a growing body of evidence of the importance of age-specific mortality in shaping life history evolution.
Lloyd, J., and T. E. Martin. 2004. Nest-site preference and maternal effects on offspring growth. Behavioral Ecology 15: 816-823.	September 2004
Lloyd, J. D., and T. E. Martin. 2005. Reproductive success of chestnut-collared longspurs in native and exotic grassland. Condor 107: 363-374.	June 2005
Lloyd, J. D., and T. E. Martin. 2003. Sibling competition and the evolution of parental developmental rates. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B 270: 735-740.	March 2003
LaManna, J. A., and T. E. Martin. 2017. Seasonal fecundity and consequences for λ are more strongly affected by direct than indirect predation effects across species. Ecology 98: 1829–1838	May 2017
LaManna, J. A., and T. E. Martin. 2017. Logging impacts on avian species richness and composition differ across latitudes and foraging and breeding habitat preferences. Biological Reviews 92: 1657-1674.	August 2017
LaManna, J. A., and T. E. Martin. 2015. Costs of fear: Behavioural and life-history responses to risk and their demographic consequences vary across species. Ecology Letters 19: 403–413. \| Abstract	January 2016	Behavioral responses to reduce predation risk might cause demographic ‘costs of fear’. The rare tests in terrestrial systems have focused on single species, but differences in life histories and ecology among species could yield differing costs that need to be understood to develop a general framework. Thus, we used natural and experimental variation in predation risk to test phenotypic responses and associated demographic costs for 10 songbird species. Increases in risk generally yielded increased time spent incubating eggs, which caused shorter development periods that reduce nest mortality. Parents also fed offspring less often with increased risk, but offspring maintained growth of structures used to escape predators (wings, tarsi) while sacrificing mass growth. Reproductive output from non-depredated nests declined along risk gradients, but the severity of this cost varied across species. Ultimately, phenotypic responses to predation risk are common across co-occurring species, but responses and demographic costs vary substantially.
LaManna, J. A., A. B. Hemenway, V. Boccadori, and T. E. Martin. 2015. Bird species turnover is related to changing predation risk along a vegetation gradient. Ecology 96: 1670-1680. \| Abstract	June 2015	Aspen (Populus tremuloides) forests hold a high diversity of organisms but are increasingly invaded and replaced by conifers. The consequences of this habitat change for diversity and demography of organisms, such as birds, remains poorly understood. Conifer encroachment of an aspen stand may increase bird diversity by increasing vegetation complexity. However, the presence of conifers may also impact the reproductive success of birds via addition of conifer-dependent nest predators or via changes in habitat structural complexity. We examined the effects of conifer encroachment on the diversity, reproductive success, and population growth rates of birds in fourteen aspen stands that differed in the extent of conifer encroachment in Montana, USA. Bird species diversity increased with aspen stand area but was not correlated with proportion of conifer trees in a stand. Nest predator density increased with proportion of conifer trees in a stand. Conifer encroachment directly increased nest predation rates for four of ten open-cup nesting species and indirectly increased nest predation rates for three additional open-cup nesting species. Furthermore, increased nest predation with greater conifer encroachment transformed source breeding habitat (λ > 1) into sink habitat (λ < 1) for these seven species. Based on these results, conifer encroachment into aspen stands has the potential to decrease diversity, reproductive success, and population growth rates of songbirds, which emphasizes the value of large, relatively pure aspen stands on the landscape.
Kie, J. G., J. Matthiopoulis, J. Fieberg, R. A. Powell, F. Cagnacci, M. S. Mitchell, J. Gaillard, and P. R. Moorcroft. 2010. The home range concept: are traditional estimators still relevant with modern telemetry technology? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365:2221-2231.	April 2010
Khwaja, N., M. Massaro, T. E. Martin, and J. V. Briskie. 2019. Do parents synchronise nest visits as an antipredator adaptation in birds of New Zealand and Tasmania? Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 7:389. doi: 10.3389/fevo.2019.00389	October 2019
Ketz, A. C., D. J. Storm, R. E. Barker, A. D. Apa, C. Oliva-Aviles, and D. P. Walsh. 2023. Assimilating ecological theory with empiricism: Using constrained generalized additive models to enhance survival analyses. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 14, 952– 967. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.14057. \| Abstract	January 2023	1. Integrating ecological theory with empirical methods is ubiquitous in ecology using hierarchical Bayesian models. However, there has been little development focused on integration of ecological theory into models for survival analysis. Survival is a fundamental process, linking individual fitness with population dynamics, but incorporating life history strategies to inform survival estimation can be challenging because mortality processes occur at multiple scales. 2. We develop an approach to survival analysis, incorporating model constraints based on a species' life history strategy using functional analytical tools. Specifically, we structurally separate intrinsic patterns of mortality that arise from age-specific processes (e.g. increasing survival during early life stages due to growth or maturation, versus senescence) from extrinsic mortality patterns that arise over different periods of time (e.g. seasonal temporal shifts). We use shape constrained generalized additive models (CGAMs) to obtain age-specific hazard functions that incorporate theoretical information based on classical survivorship curves into the age component of the model and capture extrinsic factors in the time component.3. We compare the performance of our modelling approach to standard survival modelling tools that do not explicitly incorporate species life history strategy in the model structure, using metrics of predictive power, accuracy, efficiency and computation time. We applied these models to two case studies that reflect different functional shapes for the underlying survivorship curves, examining age-period survival for white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus in Wisconsin, USA and Columbian sharp-tailed grouse Tympanuchus phasianellus columbianus in Colorado, USA. 4. We found that models that included shape constraints for the age effects in the hazard curves using CGAMs outperformed models that did not include explicit functional constraints. We demonstrate a data-driven and easily extendable approach to survival analysis by showing its utility to obtain hazard rates and survival probabilities, accounting for heterogeneity across ages and over time, for two very different species. We show how integration of ecological theory using constrained generalized additive models, with empirical statistical methods, enhances survival analyses.
Kaiser, S. A., T. E. Martin, J. C. Oteyza, C. Armstad, and R. C. Fleischer. 2018. Direct fitness benefits and kinship of social foraging groups in an Old World tropical babbler. Behavioral Ecology 29: 468-478.	March 2018
Jolley, D. B., S. S. Ditchkoff, B. D. Sparklin, L. B. Hanson, M. S. Mitchell, and J. B. Grand. 2010. Estimate of herpetofauna depredation by a population of wild pigs. Journal of Mammalogy 91:519-524.	April 2010
Inzalaco, H.N., E.E. Brandell, S. Wilson, M. Hunsaker, D.R. Stahler, K. Woelfel, D.P. Walsh, T. Nordeen, D.J. Storm, S.S. Lichtenberg, W.C. Turner. 2024. Detection of prions from spiked and free-ranging carnivore feces, Scientific Reports, 14: 3804. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44167-7 \| Abstract \| Publisher Website	February 2024	We assessed recovery and detection of PrP<sup>CWD</sup> by experimental spiking of PrP<sup>CWD </sup>into carnivore feces from 9 species sourced from CWD-free populations or captive facilities. We then applied this technique to detect PrP<sup>CWD</sup> from feces of predators and scavengers in free-ranging populations. Our results demonstrate that spiked PrP<sup>CWD</sup> is detectable from feces of free-ranging mammalian and avian carnivores using RT-QuIC. Results show that PrP<sup>CWD </sup>acquired in natural settings is detectable in feces from free-ranging carnivores, and that PrP<sup>CWD </sup>rates of detection in carnivore feces reflect relative prevalence estimates observed in the corresponding cervid populations. This study adapts an important diagnostic tool for CWD, allowing investigation of the epidemiology of CWD at the community-level.
Inzalaco, H., F. Bravo-Risi, R. Morales, R., D. P. Walsh, D. J. Storm, J. Pedersen, W. C. Turner, and S. Lichtenberg. 2023. Ticks harbor and excrete chronic wasting disease prions. Scientific Reports 13, 7838 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34308-3.	May 2023
Ibanez-Alamo, J.D., R. D. Magrath, J. C. Oteyza, A. D. Chalfoun, T. M. Haff, K. A. Schmidt, R. L. Thomson, and T. E. Martin. Nest predation research: Recent findings and future perspectives. Journal of Ornithology DOI 10.1007/s10336-015-1207-4.	April 2015
Henderson, C. R., M. S. Mitchell, W. L. Myers, and G. P. Nelson. 2018. Attributes of seasonal home range influence choice of migratory strategy in white-tailed deer. Journal of Mammalogy 99:89-96. DOI:10.1093/jmammal/gyx148	February 2018
Heiman, J., J. Tucker, S. Sells, J. Millspaugh, M. Schwartz. Leveraging local wildlife surveys for robust occupancy trend estimation.	December 2024
Hanson, L. B., M. S. Mitchell, J. B. Grand, D. B. Jolley, W. D. Sparklin, and S. S. Ditchkoff. 2009. Effect of experimental manipulation on survival and recruitment of feral pigs. Wildlife Research. 36(3):185-191.	April 2009
Hanson, L. B., J. B. Grand, M. S. Mitchell, D. B. Jolley, B. D. Sparklin and S. S. Ditchkoff. 2008. Change-in-ratio density estimator for feral pigs is less biased than closed mark-recapture estimates. Wildlife Research 35(7): 695-699.	December 2008
Hanley, B. J., Carstensen, M., Walsh, D. P., Christensen, S. A., Storm, D. J., Booth, J. G., ... & Schuler, K. L. (2022). Informing Surveillance through the Characterization of Outbreak Potential of Chronic Wasting Disease in White-Tailed Deer. Ecological Modelling, 471, 110054. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2022.110054 \| Abstract	September 2022	Understanding the role that an environmental prion reservoir plays in the outbreak dynamics of chronic wasting disease (CWD) in free ranging white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is critical for the allocation of disease surveillance resources by state and provincial wildlife agencies. We hypothesized that demographic, ecological, and epidemiological configurations naturally attenuate epidemic risk despite the introduction of infectious prions into a susceptible population of deer, but the magnitude of infectious prions in the environmental prion reservoir complicate outbreak expectations. We developed a Susceptible-Latent-Exposed-Infective (SLEI) compartment model to represent the dynamics of CWD epidemics in free-ranging white-tailed deer, then used the basic reproductive ratio (�0) to pinpoint counties under which pathogenic introduction (transport of infectious bodily fluids, tissues, and carcasses through natural or anthropogenic means) naturally produced (or failed to produce) an epidemic. We found that the outlook for an epidemic hinged on transmission rates, the magnitude of environmental contamination, and system type (density-, frequency-, or density/frequency-dependent). CWD can persistently infect individuals living in a contaminated environment even if direct transmission is insufficient to sustain circulation. Theoretical results show that transmission of CWD cannot be exclusively density dependent, and must behave as either a mix between frequency and density dependent, or strictly frequency dependent. While the compartment model is a simplistic representation of reality and did not contain many complicating biological considerations, it was immediately useful in hypothesis generation, motivating the collection of additional data for use in more biologically detailed models, and in the allocation of finite surveillance resources to place emphasis on data collection in areas where an introduction of infectious prions is comparatively more likely to result in an epidemic.
Hammond, C. A. M., M. S. Mitchell, and G. N. Bissell. In press. Territory occupancy by common loons in response to disturbance, habitat, and intraspecific relationships. Journal of Wildlife Management.	April 2012
Gude, J. A., M. S. Mitchell, R. E. Russell, C. A. Sime, E. E. Bangs, L. D. Mech, and R. R. Ream. 2012. Wolf population dynamics in U.S. northern Rocky Mountains are affected by recruitment and human-caused mortality. Journal of Wildlife Management 76:108-118.	January 2012
Gude, J. A., M. S. Mitchell, D. E. Ausband, C. A. Sime, and E. E. Bands. 2009. Internal validation of predicitive logistic regression models for decision making in wildlife management. Wildlife Biology.	October 2009
Goulding, W., and T. E. Martin. 2010. Description of the breeding biology of the Golden-faced Tyrannulet (Zimmerius chrysops) in Venezuela. Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 122:689-698	October 2010
Gilbertson, M. L., Ketz, A. C., Hunsaker, M., Jarosinski, D., Ellarson, W., Walsh, D. P., ... & Turner, W. C. (2022). Agricultural land use shapes dispersal in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Movement Ecology, 10(1), 43. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40462-022-00342-5 \| Abstract	October 2022	Dispersal is a fundamental process to animal population dynamics and gene flow. In white-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus), dispersal also presents an increasingly relevant risk for the spread of infectious diseases. Across their wide range, WTD dispersal is believed to be driven by a suite of landscape and host behavioral factors, but these can vary by region, season, and sex. Our objectives were to (1) identify dispersal events in Wisconsin WTD and determine drivers of dispersal rates and distances, and (2) determine how landscape features (e.g., rivers, roads) structure deer dispersal paths.
Gilbertson, M. L., Brandell, E. E., Pinkerton, M. E., Meaux, N. M., Hunsaker, M., Jarosinski, D., ... & Turner, W. C. (2022). CAUSE OF DEATH, PATHOLOGY, AND CHRONIC WASTING DISEASE STATUS OF WHITE-TAILED DEER (ODOCOILEUS VIRGINIANUS) MORTALITIES IN WISCONSIN, USA. The Journal of Wildlife Diseases, 58(4), 803-815. https://doi.org/10.7589/JWD-D-21-00202 \| Abstract	October 2022	White-tailed deer (WTD; Odocoileus virginianus) are a critical species for ecosystem function and wildlife management. As such, studies of cause-specific mortality among WTD have long been used to understand population dynamics. However, detailed pathological information is rarely documented for free-ranging WTD, especially in regions with a high prevalence of chronic wasting disease (CWD). This leaves a significant gap in understanding how CWD is associated with disease processes or comorbidities that may subsequently alter broader population dynamics. We investigated unknown mortalities among collared WTD in southwestern Wisconsin, USA, an area of high CWD prevalence. We tested for associations between CWD and other disease processes and used a network approach to test for co-occurring disease processes. Predation and infectious disease were leading suspected causes of death, with high prevalence of CWD (42.4%; of 245 evaluated) and pneumonia (51.2%; of 168 evaluated) in our sample. CWD prevalence increased with age, before decreasing among older individuals, with more older females than males in our sample. Females were more likely to be CWD positive, and although this was not statistically significant when accounting for age, females were significantly more likely to die with end-stage CWD than males and may consequently be an underrecognized source of CWD transmission. Presence of CWD was associated with emaciation, atrophy of marrow fat and hematopoietic cells, and ectoparasitism (lice and ticks). Occurrences of severe infectious disease processes clustered together (e.g., pneumonia, CWD), as compared to noninfectious or low-severity processes (e.g., sarcocystosis), although pneumonia cases were not fully explained by CWD status. With the prevalence of CWD increasing across North America, our results highlight the critical importance of understanding the potential role of CWD in favoring or maintaining disease processes of importance for deer population health and dynamics.
Ghalambor, C. K., and T. E. Martin. 2002. Comparative manipulation of predation in incubating birds reveals variability in the plasticity of responses. Behavioral Ecology 13: 101-108.	January 2002
Ghalambor, C. K., and T. E. Martin. 2001. Fecundity-survival trade-offs and parental risk-taking in birds. Science 292: 494-497	April 2001
Ghalambor, C. K., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Parental investment in two species of nuthatch varies with stage-specific predation risk and reproductive effort. Animal Behaviour 60: 263-267	September 2000
Ghalambor, C. K., S. I. Peluc, and T. E. Martin. 2013. Plasticity of parental care under the risk of predation: how much should parents reduce care? Biology Letters 9: 20130154. \| Abstract	August 2013	Predation can be an important agent of natural selection resulting in divergent parental care behaviors, and can also favor behavioral plasticity. Parent birds often decrease the rate that they visit the nest to provision offspring when perceived risk is high. Yet, the plasticity of such responses may differ among species as a function of either their relative risk of predation, or the mean rate of provisioning. Here, we report parental provisioning responses to experimental increases in the perceived risk of predation. We tested responses of 10 species of birds in north temperate Arizona and subtropical Argentina that differed in their ambient risk of predation. All species decreased provisioning rates in response to the nest predator but not a control. However, provisioning rates decreased more in species that had greater ambient risk of predation on natural nests. Thus, extent of plasticity varied among species in accord with risk.
Forsman, J. T., and T. E. Martin. 2009. Habitat selection for parasite-free space by hosts of parasitic cowbirds. Oikos 118: 464-470.	April 2009
Fontaine, J.J., and T.E. Martin. 2006. Parent birds assess nest predation risk and adjust their reproductive strategies. Ecology Letters 9:428-434. \| Abstract \| Download	April 2006	Avian life history theory has long assumed that nest predation plays a minor role in shaping reproductive strategies. Yet, this assumption remains conspicuously untested by broad experiments that alter environmental risk of nest predation, despite the fact that nest predation is a major source of reproductive failure. Here, we examined whether parents can assess experimentally reduced nest predation risk and alter their reproductive strategies. We experimentally reduced nest predation risk and show that in safer environments parents increased investment in young through increased egg size, clutch mass, and the rate they fed nestlings. Parents also increased investment in female condition by increasing the rates that males fed incubating females at the nest, and decreasing the time that females spent incubating. These results demonstrate that birds can assess nest predation risk at large and that nest predation plays a key role in the expression of avian reproductive strategies.
Fontaine, J.J., and T.E. Martin. 2006. Habitat selection responses of parents to offspring predation risk: an experimental test. American Naturalist 168:811-818. \| Abstract \| Download	October 2006	The ability of nest predation to influence habitat settlement decisions in birds is widely debated, despite its importance in limiting fitness. Here, we experimentally manipulated nest predation risk across a landscape and asked the question, do migratory birds assess and respond to variation in nest predation risk when choosing breeding habitats? We examined habitat preference by quantifying the density and settlement date of eight species of migratory passerines breeding in areas with and without intact nest predator communities. We found consistently more individuals nesting in areas with reduced nest predation than in areas with intact predator assemblages, although predation risk had no influence on settlement or breeding phenology. Additionally, those individuals occupying safer nesting habitats exhibited increased singing activity. These findings support a causal relationship between habitat choice and nest predation risk and suggest the importance of nest predation risk in shaping avian community structure and breeding activity.
Fontaine, J.J., M. Martel, H.M. Markland, A.M. Niklison, K.L. Decker and T.E. Martin. 2007. Testing ecological and behavioral correlates of nest predation. Oikos 116:1887-1894. \| Abstract \| Download	October 2007	Variation in nest predation rates among bird species are assumed to reflect differences in risk that are specific to particular nest sites. Theoretical and empirical studies suggest that parental care behaviors can evolve in response to nest predation risk and thereby differ among ecological conditions that vary in inherent risk. However, parental care also can influence predation risk. Separating the effects of nest predation risk inherent to a nest site from the risk imposed by parental strategies is needed to understand the evolution of parental care. Here we identify correlations between risks inherent to nest sites, and risk associated with parental care behaviors, and use an artificial nest experiment to assess site-specific differences in nest predation risk across nesting guilds and between habitats that differed in nest predator abundance. We found a strong correlation between parental care behaviors and inherent differences in nest predation risk, but despite the absence of parental care at artificial nests, patterns of nest predation risk were similar for real and artificial nests both across nesting guilds and between predator treatments. Thus, we show for the first time that inherent risk of nest predation varies with nesting guild and predator abundance independent of parental care.
Fontaine, J.J., E. Arriero, H. Schwable, and T.E. Martin. 201). Nest predation and circulating corticosterone levels within and among species. Condor 113:(825-833) \| Download	November 2011
Fontaine, J. J., and T. E. Martin. 2006. Parent birds assess nest predation risk and adjust their reproductive strategies. Ecology Letters 9: 428-434.	March 2006
Fontaine, J. J., and T. E. Martin. 2006. Experimental test of nest predation influences on adult habitat selection in a breeding bird community. American Naturalist 168: 811-818.	December 2006
Fontaine, J. J., M. Martel, H. M. Markland, A. Niklison, K. L. Decker, and T. E. Martin. 2007. Testing ecological and behavioral correlates of nest predation. Oikos 116: 1887-1894.	November 2007
Fierro-Calderon, K., and T. E. Martin. 2007. Reproductive biology of the Violet-chested Hummingbird in Venezuela and comparisons with other tropical and temperate hummingbirds. Condor 109:680-685.	April 2007
Ferretti, V., P. E. Llambias, and T. E. Martin. 2005. Life history differences between poulations of a Neotropical thrush challenge food limitation theory. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 272:769-773.	April 2005
Fedy, B. C., and T. E. Martin. 2009. Male songbirds provide indirect parental care by guarding females during incubation. Behavioral Ecology 20: 1034-1038.	August 2009
Eacker, D. R., M. Hebblewhite, K. M. Proffitt, B. S. Jimenez, M. S. Mitchell, and H. S. Robinson. 2016. Landscape-level effects of risk factors on annual elk calf survival in a multiple carnivore system. Journal of Wildlife Management 80:1345-1359.	August 2016
Donovan, T. M., C. J. Beardmore, D. N. Bonter, J. K. Brawn, R. J. Cooper, J. A. Fitzgerald, R. Ford, S. A. Gauthreaux, T. L. George, W. C. Hunter, T. E. Martin, J. Price, K. V. Rosenberg, P. D. Vickery, and T. Bently Wigley. 2002. Priority research needs for the conservation of Neotropical migrant landbirds. Journal of Field Ornithology 73:329-339.	December 2002
Ditchkoff, S. S., D. B. Jolley, B. D. Sparklin, L. B. Hanson, M. S. Mitchell, and J. B. Grand. 2012. Reproduction in a Population of Wild Pigs (Sus scrofa) Subjected to Lethal Control. Journal of Wildlife Management 76:1235-1240.	August 2012
Delgado Rivas, M., N. Ferrari, A. Fanelli, S. Muset, C. L. Thompson, C. L. White, D. P. Walsh, C. Wannous, and P. Tizzani. 2023. Wildlife health surveillance: gaps, needs and opportunities. World Organisation for Animal Health The Scientific and Technical Review. 41 (2). \| Abstract	March 2023	Disease emergence represents a global threat for public health, economy, and biological conservation, most of the emerging zoonotic diseases have an animal origin of which the majority of these are from wildlife. To prevent their spread and to support the implementation of control measures, disease surveillance and reporting systems are needed, and due to globalisation, these activities should be carried out at the global level. To define the main gaps effecting the performances of wildlife health surveillance and reporting systems globally, we analysed data from a questionnaire sent to National Focal Points of the World Organisation for Animal Health that inquired on structure and limits of wildlife surveillance and reporting systems in their territories. The response from 103 Members, covering all world areas, showed that 54.4% of them have a wildlife disease surveillance programme and 66% implemented a strategy to manage disease spread. The lack of dedicated budget affected the possibility of outbreak investigations, sampling collection, and diagnostic testing. Although most Members maintain records relating to wildlife mortality or morbidity events in centralised databases, data analyses and disease risk assessment are reported as priority needs. Our evaluation of surveillance capacity showed an overall low level with marked variability between Members that was not restricted to specific geographical area. Increased wildlife disease surveillance globally would help in understanding and managing risks to animal and public health. Moreover, consideration of the influence of socio-economic, cultural, and biodiversity aspects could improve disease surveillance under a One Health approach.
Decker, K., A. Niklison, and T. E. Martin. 2007. First description of the nest, eggs, and breeding behavior of the Merida Tapaculo (Scytalopus meridanus). Wilson Journal of Ornithology 119: 121-124.	February 2007
DeVoe, J., K. M. Proffitt, M. S. Mitchell, C. Jourdonnais, K. J. Barker. 2019. Elk Forage and Risk Tradeoffs during the Fall Archery Season. Journal of Wildlife Management.	May 2019
Cox, W. A., and T. E. Martin. 2009. Breeding biology of the Three-striped Warbler in Venezuela: A contrast between tropical and temperate parulids. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 121: 667-678.	December 2009
Conway, C. K., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Effects of ambient temperature on avian incubation strategies: a model and test. Behavioral Ecology 11: 178-188.	November 2000
Conway, C. J., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Evolution of avian incubation behavior: influence of food, temperature, and nest predation. Evolution 54:670-685.	September 2000
Clark, M., and T. E. Martin. 2007. Modeling trade-offs in avian life history traits and consequences for population growth. Ecological Modeling, 209:110-120.	November 2007
Cheng, Y., and T. E. Martin. 2012. Nest predation risk and growth strategies of Passerine species: Grow fast or develop traits to escape risk? American Naturalist 180: 285-295. \| Abstract	September 2012	Different body components are thought to trade-off in their growth and development rates, but the causes for relative prioritization of any trait remains a critical question. Offspring of species at higher risk of predation might prioritize development of locomotor traits that facilitate escaping risky environments over growth of mass. We tested this possibility in 12 altricial Passerine species that differed in their risk of nest predation. We found that rates of growth and development of mass, wings, and endothermy increased with nest predation risk across species. In particular, species with higher nest predation risk exhibited relatively faster growth of wings than mass, fledged with relatively larger wing sizes and smaller mass, and developed endothermy earlier at relatively smaller mass. This differential development can facilitate both escape from predators and survival outside of the nest environment. Tarsus growth was not differentially prioritized with respect to nest predation risk and, instead, all species achieved adult tarsus size by age of fledging. We also tested if different foraging modes (aerial, arboreal and ground foragers) might explain the variation of differential growth of locomotor modules, but found little residual variation was explained. Our results suggest that differences in nest predation risk among species are associated with relative prioritization of body components to facilitate escape from the risky nest environment.
Chalfoun, A.D. and T.E. Martin. 2010. Facultative nest patch shifts in response to nest predation risk in the Brewer's sparrow: a "win-stay, lose-switch" strategy? Oecologia 163:885-892.	October 2010
Chalfoun, A., and T. E. Martin. 2010. Within-season facultative shifts in nest-site selection in response to offspring predation risk: A win-stay, lose-switch strategy. Oecologia 163:885-892.	September 2010
Chalfoun, A., and T. E. Martin. 2010. Parental investment decisions in response to ambient nest predation risk versus actual predation on the prior nest. The Condor 112:701-710.	October 2010
Chalfoun, A., and T. E. Martin. 2009. Habitat structure mediates predation risk for sedentary prey: experimental tests of alternative hypotheses. Journal of Animal Ecology 78: 497-503.	April 2009
Chalfoun, A. D., and T. E. Martin. 2007. Latitudinal variation in avian incubation attentiveness and a test of the food limitation hypothesis. Animal Behaviour 73:579-585.	January 2007
Chalfoun, A. D., and T. E. Martin. 2007. Assessments of habitat preferences and quality depend on spatial scale and metrics of fitness. Journal of Applied Ecology 44:983-992.	August 2007
Chalfoun, A. D., and T. E. Martin. 2007. Latitudinal variation in avian incubation attentiveness and an experimental test of the food limitation hypothesis. Animal Behaviour 73: 579-585.	September 2007
Chalfoun, A. D., and T. E. Martin. 2007. Assessments of habitat preferences and quality depend on spatial scale and metrics of fitness. J. of Applied Ecology 44: 983-992.	September 2007
Chalfoun, A. D., and T. E. Martin. 2009. Habitat structure mediates predation risk for sedentary prey: Experimental tests of alternative hypotheses. J. of Animal Ecology 78:497-503.	September 2009
Cavitt, J. F., and T. E. Martin. 2002. Effects of forest fragmentation on brood parasitism and nest predation in eastern and western landscapes. Studies in Avian Biology 25: 73-80.	December 2002
Canterbury, G. E., T. E. Martin, D. R. Petit, L. J. Petit, and D. F. Bradford. 2000. Bird communities and habitat as ecological indicators of forest condition in regional monitoring. Conservation Biology 14: 544-558.	May 2000
Callan, L. M., F. A. La Sorte, T. E. Martin, and V. G. Rohwer. 2019. Higher nest predation favors rapid fledging at the cost of plumage quality in nestling birds. American Naturalist 193: 717-724. \| Abstract	May 2019	Life-history theory predicts that rapid growth comes at a cost to trait quality or adult longevity. However, this predicted trade-off has been weak or absent in passerine birds that vary in their growth rates. Trade-offs associated with fast growth and short development time might be better expressed in ephemeral traits because costs associated with these traits can be recovered or eliminated when they are replaced. We examined whether shorter development time yielded lower quality nestling body feathers, an ephemeral trait. We found a strong trade-off whereby nestlings that spend more time in the nest growing slowly produced higher quality plumage across 123 temperate and tropical species. This trade-off appears largely driven by nest predation because high predation rates favor rapid nestling growth and short development times at the cost of plumage quality. Our results suggest that ephemeral traits, like nestling body feathers, which can be replaced later, have the potential to minimize other longer-term trade-offs that arise during the rapid development of multiple traits.
Cain, J.W. III, and M.S. Mitchell. 2018. Evaluation of Key Scientific Issues in the Report, “State of the Mountain Lion: a Call to End Trophy Hunting of America’s Lion”. USGS Open File Report 2018-1128. \| Download	August 2018
Cadena, C. D., S. C�rdoba-C�rdoba, G. A. Londo�o, D. Calder�n-F., T. E. Martin, M. P. Baptiste. 2007. Nesting and singing behavior of Common Bush-Tanagers (Chlorospingus ophthalmicus) in South America. Ornitologia Colombiana 5: 54-63.	August 2007
Burgener, K. R., Lichtenberg, S. S., Lomax, A., Storm, D. J., Walsh, D. P., & Pedersen, J. A. (2022). Diagnostic testing of chronic wasting disease in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) by RT-QuIC using multiple tissues. Plos one, 17(11), e0274531. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0274531 \| Abstract	November 2022	Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal prion disease affecting cervids (deer, elk, moose). Current methods to monitor individual disease state include highly invasive antemortem rectal biopsy or postmortem brain biopsy. Efficient, sensitive, and selective antemortem and postmortem testing of populations would increase knowledge of the dynamics of CWD epizootics as well as provide a means to track CWD progression into previously unaffected areas. Here, we analyzed the presence of CWD prions in skin samples from two easily accessed locations (ear and belly) from 30 deceased white-tailed deer (Odocoileus viginianus). The skin samples were enzymatically digested and analyzed by real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC). The diagnostic sensitivity of the ear and belly skin samples were both 95%, and the diagnostic specificity of the ear and belly skin were both 100%. Additionally, the location of the skin biopsy on the ear does not affect specificity or sensitivity. These results demonstrate the efficacy of CWD diagnosis with skin biopsies using RT-QuIC. This method could be useful for large scale antemortem population testing.
Burgener K., S. S. Lichtenberg, D. P. Walsh, H. Inzalaco, A. Lomax, and J. Pedersen. 2024. Prion seeding activity in plant tissues detected by RT-QuIC. Pathogens 13, 452. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13060452. \| Abstract	May 2024	Prion diseases such scrapie, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and chronic wasting disease (CWD) affect domesticated and wild herbivorous mammals. Animals afflicted with chronic wasting disease, the TSE of cervids (deer, elk, moose), shed prions into the environment, where they may persist and remain infectious for years. These environmental prions may remain in soil, be transported in surface waters, or assimilated into plants. Environmental sampling is an emerging area of TSE research and can provide more information about prion fate and transport once shed by infected animals. In this study, we have developed the first published method for extraction and detection of prions in plant tissue using the real-time quaking-induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay. Incubation with a zwitterionic surfactant followed by a precipitation with sodium phosphotungstate concentrates the prions within samples and allows for sensitive detection of prion seeding activity. Using this protocol, we demonstrate that prions can be detected within plant tissues and on plant surfaces using the RT-QuIC assay.
Brodie, J., H. Johnson, M. S. Mitchell, P. Zager, K. Proffitt, M. Hebblewhite, M. Kauffman, B. Johnson, J. Bissonette, C. Bishop, J. Gude, J. Herbert, K. Hersey, M. Hurley, P. M. Lukacs, S. McCorquodale, E. McIntire, J. Nowak, H. Sawyer, D. Smith, and P.J. White. Submitted. Relative influence of human harvest, carnivores, and weather on adult female elk survival across western North America. Journal of Applied Ecology 50:295–305.	April 2013
Brandell, E. E., Storm, D. J., Van Deelen, T. R., Walsh, D. P., & Turner, W. C. (2022). A call to action: Standardizing white-tailed deer harvest data in the Midwestern United States and implications for quantitative analysis and disease management. Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 10, 943411. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.943411 \| Abstract	November 2022	Recreational hunting has been the dominant game management and conservation mechanism in the United States for the past century. However, there are numerous modern-day issues that reduce the viability and efficacy of hunting-based management, such as fewer hunters, overabundant wildlife populations, limited access, and emerging infectious diseases in wildlife. Quantifying the drivers of recreational harvest by hunters could inform potential management actions to address these issues, but this is seldom comprehensively accomplished because data collection practices limit some analytical applications (e.g., differing spatial scales of harvest regulations and harvest data). Additionally, managing large-scale issues, such as infectious diseases, requires collaborations across management agencies, which is challenging or impossible if data are not standardized. Here we discuss modern issues with the prevailing wildlife management framework in the United States from an analytical point of view with a case study of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the Midwest. We have four aims: (1) describe the interrelated processes that comprise hunting and suggest improvements to current data collections systems, (2) summarize data collection systems employed by state wildlife management agencies in the Midwestern United States and discuss potential for large-scale data standardization, (3) assess how aims 1 and 2 influence managing infectious diseases in hunted wildlife, and (4) suggest actionable steps to help guide data collection standards and management practices. To achieve these goals, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources disseminated a questionnaire to state wildlife agencies (Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kentucky, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, Wisconsin), and we report and compare their harvest management structures, data collection practices, and responses to chronic wasting disease. We hope our "call to action" encourages re-evaluation, coordination, and improvement of harvest and management data collection practices with the goal of improving the analytical potential of these data. A deeper understanding of the strengths and deficiencies of our current management systems in relation to harvest and management data collection methods could benefit the future development of comprehensive and collaborative management and research initiatives (e.g., adaptive management) for wildlife and their diseases.
Boyce, A.J., B.G. Freeman, A.E. Mitchell and T.E. Martin. 2015. Clutch size declines with elevation in tropical birds. Auk 132: 424-432.	April 2015
Boyce, A. J. and T. E. Martin. 2018. Interspecific aggression among parapatric and sympatric songbirds on a tropical elevational gradient. Behavioral Ecology 30: 541-547.	March 2019
Boyce, A. J. and T. E. Martin. 2017. Contrasting latitudinal patterns of life-history divergence in two genera of new world thrushes (Turdinae). Journal of Avian Biology 48: 1-10.	January 2017
Borg., N. J., M. S. Mitchell, P. M. Lukacs, C. M. Mack, L. P. Waits, and P. R. Krausman. 2017. Behavioral connectivity among bighorn sheep suggests potential for disease spread. Journal of Wildlife Management 81:38-45 DOI: 10.1002/jwmg.21169	January 2017
Biancucci, L., and T. E. Martin. 2008. First description of the breeding biology and natural history of the Ochre-breasted Brush-finch (Atlapetes semirufus) in Venezuela. Wilson Journal of Ornithology 120: 856-862.	November 2008
Biancucci, L. and T.E. Martin. 2010. Can selection on nest size from nest predation explain the latitudinal gradient in clutch size? Journal of Animal Ecology 79:1086-1092.	September 2010
Biancucci, A. L., and T. E. Martin. 2010. Can selection on nest size from nest predation explain the latitudinal gradient in clutch size? Journal of Animal Ecology 79: 1086-1092.	August 2010
Beyer, H. L., D. T. Haydon, J. M. Morales, J. L. Frair, M. Hebblewhite, M. S. Mitchell, and J. Matthiopoulos. 2010. The interpretation of habitat preference metrics under use-availability designs. Philosphical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365:2245-2254.	April 2010
Bassing, S. B., D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, P. M. Lukacs, A. Keever, G. Hale, and L. Waits. 2019. Stable Pack Abundance and Distribution in a Harvested Wolf Population. Journal of Wildlife Management.	March 2019
Bassing, S. B., D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, M. Schwartz, Michael, J. J. Nowak, G. Hale, and L. Waits, 2020. Immigration Does Not Offset Harvest Mortality in a Cooperatively Breeding Carnivore. Animal Conservation.	May 2020
Barker, K. J., M. S. Mitchell, and K. M. Proffitt. 2019. Native Forage Mediates Influence of Irrigated Agriculture on Migratory Behavior of Elk. Journal of Animal Ecology.	July 2019
Barker, K. J., M. S. Mitchell, K. M. Proffitt, and J. D. DeVoe. 2018. Land management alters traditional nutritional benefits of migration for elk. Journal of Wildlife Management. DOI: 10.1002:jwmg.21564.	September 2018
Barber, D. R., T. E. Martin, M. A. Melchiors, R. E. Thill, and T. B. Wigley. 2001. Nesting success of birds in different silvicultural treatments in Southeastern U. S. pine forests. Conservation Biology 15: 196-207.	February 2001
Banks, A. B., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Variation among host species in probability of parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds: the role of host activity. Behavioral Ecology 12: 31-40	January 2001
Banks, A. B., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Variation among host species in probability of parasitism by brown headed cowbirds: the role of host activity. Behavioral Ecology 12: 31-40.	February 2000
Badyaev, A. V., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Sexual dimorphism in relation to current selection in the House Finch. Evolution 54: 987-997.	August 2000
Badyaev, A. V., and T. E. Martin. 2000. Individual variation in growth trajectories: Phenotypic and genetic correlations in ontogeny of the house finch (Carpodacus mexicanus). Journal of Evolutionary Biology 13: 290-301.	April 2000
Ausband, D.E., S.B. Bassing, and M.S. Mitchell. 2020. Environmental and social influences on wolf howling behavior. Ethology. 126:890-899. https://doi.org/10.1111/eth.13041	June 2020
Ausband, D.E., J.Young, B. Fannin, M.S. Mitchell, J.L. Stenglein, L.P. Waits, and J.A. Shivik. 2011. Hair of the dog: obtaining samples from coyotes and wolves noninvasively. Wildlife Society Bulletin 35:105-111. \| Abstract \| Publisher Website	May 2011	Canids can be difficult to detect and their populations difficult to monitor. We tested whether hair samples could be collected from coyotes (Canis latrans) in Texas, USA and gray wolves (C. lupus) in Montana, USA using lure to elicit rubbing behavior at both man-made and natural collection devices. We used mitochondrial and nuclear DNA to determine whether collected hair samples were from coyote, wolf, or nontarget species. Both coyotes and wolves rubbed on man-made barbed surfaces but coyotes in Texas seldom rubbed on hanging barbed surfaces. Wolves in Montana showed a tendency to rub at stations where natural-material collection devices (sticks and debris) were present. Time to detection was relatively short (5 nights and 4 nights for coyotes and wolves, respectively) with nontarget and unknown species comprising approximately 26% of the detections in both locations. Eliciting rubbing behavior from coyotes and wolves using lures has advantages over opportunistic genetic sampling methods (e.g., scat transects) because it elicits a behavior that deposits a hair sample at a fixed sampling location, thereby increasing the efficiency of sampling for canids. Hair samples from rub stations could be used to provide estimates of abundance, measures of genetic diversity and health, and detection-nondetection data useful for cost-effective population monitoring.
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, and L. P. Waits. 2017. Effects of breeder turnover and harvest on group composition and recruitment in a social carnivore. Journal of Animal Ecology DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12707	July 2017
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, S. Bassing, and C. White. 2013. No trespassing: using a biofence to manipulate carnivore movements. Wildlife Research 40:207-216.	September 2013
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, S. B. Bassing, M. Nordhagen, D. W. Smith, and D. R. Stahler. 2016. Dog days of summer: influences on decision of wolves to move pups. Journal of Mammalogy 97:1282-1287.	July 2016
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, S. B. Bassing, A. Morehouse, D. W. Smith, and D. Stahler. 2016. Individual, group, and environmental influences on helping behavior in a social carnivore. Ethology 122:1-10.	October 2016
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, K. Doherty, P. Zager, C. M. Mack, and J. Holyan. 2010. Surveying predicted rendezvous sites to monitor gray wolf populations. Journal of Wildlife Management 74:1043-1049.	April 2010
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, C. R. Stansbury, J. L. Stenglein, and L. P. Waits. 2017. Effects of harvest on recruitment and groups of cooperative breeders. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 284: 20170580	July 2017
Ausband, D. E., L. N. Rich, E. M. Glenn, M. S. Mitchell, P. Zager, C. M. Mack, D. A. W. Miller, and B. B. Ackerman. 2014. Monitoring Gray Wolf Populations Using Multiple Survey Methods. Journal of Wildlife Management 78:335-346.	February 2014
Ausband, D. E., J. Skrivseth, and M. S. Mitchell. 2011. An Automated Device for Provoking and Capturing Wildlife Calls. Wildlife Society Bulletin 35:498-503.	December 2011
Ausband, D. E. and M. S. Mitchell. Submitted. The effect of group size on recruitment depends on population density in a cooperatively breeding carnivore. Journal of Animal Ecology.	April 2021
Auer, S.K., R.D. Bassar, J.J. Fontaine, and T.E. Martin. 2007. Breeding biology of passerines in a subtropical montane forest in Northwestern Argentina. Condor 109:321-333. \| Abstract \| Download	April 2007	The breeding ecology of south temperate bird species is less widely known than that of north temperate species, yet because they comprise a large portion of the world’s avian diversity, knowledge of their breeding ecology can contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the geographic diversity of avian reproductive traits and life history strategies. We provide the first detailed examination of the reproductive strategies of 18 forest passerines of subtropical, northwestern Argentina. Mean clutch sizes were smaller and egg mass was greater than for north temperate birds, but differed among species and nest types, with cavity-nesters having larger clutches than species with opencup and enclosed nests. Across all species, the average breeding season duration was 50 days; thus, the common perception that southern species have smaller clutch sizes because of longer breeding seasons is not supported in this community. Daily nest predation rates were influenced by nest type, cavity nests suffering the least from predation, as found in north temperate systems. Only females incubated eggs in all but one species, whereas both parents fed and cared for nestlings in all species. Mean nest attentiveness was low compared to north temperate passerines. Mean hourly nestling feeding rates differed among species and were negatively related to nest predation risk. In short, coexisting species in this subtropical forest varied in their life history strategies, in part correlated with variation in nest predation risk, but also differing from north temperate species.
Auer, S. K., and T. E. Martin. 2013. Climate change has indirect effects on resource use and overlap among coexisting bird species with negative consequences for their reproductive success. Global Change Biology 19: 411-419.	January 2013
Auer, S. K., R. D. Bassar, J. J. Fontaine, and T. E. Martin. 2007. Breeding biology of passerines in a subtropical montane forest in northwestern Argentina. The Condor 109:321-333.	January 2007
Auer, S. K., R. D. Bassar and T. E. Martin. 2007. Biparental incubation in the chestnut-vented tit-babbler Parisoma subcaerulemum: mates devote equal time, but males keep eggs warmer. Journal Avian Biology. 38: 278-283.	February 2007
Arriero, E., A. Majewska, and T. E. Martin. 2013. Ontogeny of constitutive immunity: maternal vs endogenous influences. Functional Ecology 27: 472–478. \| Abstract	February 2013	Summary 1. Variation in ontogeny and strength of immune defense mechanisms can be integrally related to variation in life history strategies and determined by trade-offs during development. However, little is known about the ontogeny of immune function in wild birds, especially in altricial birds and in a comparative context across altricial species with diverse life history strategies. 2. In this study we examined the ontogeny of constitutive immunity in a group of 22 Passerine species sampled in tropical Venezuela and north temperate Arizona. 3. Our results show activity of constitutive components of the immune defense at 1-3 days post-hatching, and an increase in immune activity with age. Inter-specific variation in immune activity at hatching was mainly explained by extrinsic factors mediated by the mother (egg size and egg temperature), suggesting an important role of maternal effects on offspring immunity at hatching. In contrast, the increase in agglutination activity with age suggests that immune function in older nestlings reflects intrinsic development. The increase in immune activity was greater in species that hatched with lower initial levels, and was somewhat negatively related to growth rate across species. 4. Our results suggest slower intrinsic development of immune function may be compensated by larger maternal contributions. Slower intrinsic development of immune function, in turn, may reflect a trade-off with faster somatic growth. Our study highlights the importance of both maternal (extrinsic) and endogenous (intrinsic) contributions to variation in immune function across altricial species that may reflect an important axis of developmental strategies.

Presentations

Presentations	Presentation Date
Zimova, M., L. S. Mills, and M. S. Mitchell. 2014. Camouflage mismatch in seasonal coat color due to decreased snow duration: will snowshoe hares keep up with climate change? North America Congress for Conservation Biology.	July 2014	Climate change poses particular threats to winter-adapted animals that rely on seasonal coat changes, such as snowshoe hares. Our work shows that the ability of hares to adapt phenotypically to changing temperature regimes is highly limited, suggesting genotypic change will likely be required for their persistence where temperatures warm significantly.
Williams, B. L., S. S. Ditchkoff, D. B. Jolley, L. B. Hanson, W. D. Sparklin, M. S. Mitchell, J. B. Grand, and R. M. Thornton. 2006. Stress in feral pigs: finding the weak link in a strong chain. 2006 National Conference on Wild Pigs.	May 2006
Western Elk Research Collaborative. 2013. Untangling Rocky Mountain elk ecology and population dynamics: a regional synthesis across the northwestern US. Annual meeting, Montana chapter of The Wildlife Society. Missoula, MT.	May 2013	This research represents a trans-boundary collaboration between state agencies, university and cooperative research units, with the purpose of using meta-analyses to understand regional population dynamics and management of elk.
Western Elk Research Collaborative. 2013. Untangling Rocky Mountain elk ecology and population dynamics: a regional synthesis across the northwestern US. 10th biennial meeting of the western states and Provinces deer and elk workshop, Missoula, MT.	February 2013	This research represents a trans-boundary collaboration between state agencies, university and cooperative research units, with the purpose of using meta-analyses to understand regional population dynamics and management of elk.
Walsh, D.P., E. Robertson, and J. Marten. 2023. Using rapid prototyping to synthesize knowledge regarding the cause of an emerging disease. The Wildlife Society Annual Meeting, Louisville, KY, USA. November 5-9, 2023. (oral)	November 2023	We develop a rapid prototyping method for synthesizing knowledge regarding the etiological agents of emerging diseases. Our rapid prototyping approaches can be used to combine knowledge from multiple experts and/or studies to help with fast decision-making needed for urgent conservation issues including emerging diseases and other management problems that require rapid responses.
Walsh, D.P. 2024. Recovering Bighorn Sheep Populations: Test and Remove as a Management Strategy. Montana State Sheep Health Research Group. Bozeman, MT (virtual) 4/3/2024.	April 2024	This presentation highlights the epidemiology of bighorn sheep respiratory disease and several research efforts aimed at improving the health of bighorn sheep herds by removing individuals chronically shedding <i>Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae</i>. This work describes the success and needs associated with applying this management strategy.
Walsh, D. P., and C. L. White. 2023. Introduction to systems thinking: strengthening the environmental and preventive aspects of One Health. Workshop for Nature for Health Project in Mongolia. Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia. 12/6/2023	December 2023	This presentation is informational, and describes systems thinking and how it can be leveraged to improve One Health applications. The presentation is to support work in Mongolia to prevent future pandemics by strengthening One Health in practice with a particular focus on environmental determinants.
Walsh, D. P. 2024. Prions and plants: potential pathway for CWD transmission. USDA Stakeholders Meeting. 1/11/2024. (virtual)	January 2024	This is the key note address for the USDA stakeholder meetings. It details the current state of knowledge of regarding the role plants may play in CWD transmission.
Walsh, D. P. 2023. CWD Management Interventions. National Academy Sciences. 10/9/2023, virtual.	October 2023	This is a requested presentation to provide the National Academy Sciences CWD Committee with a background of what has been done to manage CWD, what is the efficacy of these interventions, why is there urgency and what do we wish we knew to inform management. This information will provide the foundation for the Committee to develop recommendations for scientific directions for CWD.
Vinks, M. A., S. N. Sells, C. M. Costello, and L. L. Roberts. 2024. Effects of forest disturbance on grizzly bear resource selection in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem. Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society, Butte Montana.	February 2024	This presentation will share preliminary results of a study on the effects of fire and timber harvest on grizzly bears in the Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem.
V. Boccadori, V., K. Proffitt, and D. P. Walsh. 2023. Highland Bighorn Sheep Project. Wild Sheep Working Group Test and Remove Workshop. (virtual) Reno, Nevada. 1/11/2023.	January 2023	In the Highland Mountains of southwest Montana, we initiated a management experiment to evaluate the effects of test and removal of Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae (M. ovi) positive animals and mineral supplementation on lamb survival and population growth. We will describe the project’s progress to date and future directions.
The role of maternal effects in geographic variation in avian embryonic development. EBIRD (European and North American Integration of Endocrinology and Evolutionary Ecology) Seattle, Washington (Invited Plenary).	August 2005
Tallon, A. K., J. Blanchong, D. Navarro, P. Euclide, C. Ott-Conn, D. P. Walsh, R. DeYoung, and E K. Latch. 2022. Development and application of a high-throughput genomic resource to inform white-tailed deer population and disease management. Part 2 of 2. The Wildlife Society Annual Conference. Spokane WA. 11/9/2022	November 2022	We developed and validated GT-seq panel and applied it to ~ 3,000 CWD-positive or -negative deer sampled from 17 states across Eastern and Central USA. Our SNP panel exhibited high efficiency, accuracy, and power for population structure characterization, relatedness estimation, and CWD susceptibility assessment. Given the economic and cultural importance of North American deer, these tools are critical for collaborative CWD management, and provide framework for integrating genomic resources in
Stenglein,J., C. Mack, D. Ausband, M. Mitchell, P. Zager, S. Nadeau and L. Waits. 2009. Evaluating the potential of noninvasive genetic sampling for long-term monitoring of gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Idaho. Annual Meeting, The Wildlife Society.	January 2009	XX
Stenglein, J., C. Mack, D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, P. Zager, and L. Waits. 2008. Evaluating the use of noninvasive genetic sampling for monitoring gray wolves in Idaho. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2008
Stenglein, J., C. Mack, D. Ausband, M. Mitchell, P. Zager, S. Nadeau, and L. Waits. 2009. Monitoring an Idaho gray wolf population: A noninvasive genetic approach. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	January 2017	XX
Stansbury, C., D. Ausband, C. Mack, P. Zager, M. Mitchell, and L. Waits. 2011. A noninvasive genetic sampling approach for monitoring gray wolves in Idaho. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2011
Sparklin, W. D., L. B. Hanson, D. B. Jolley, M. S. Mitchell, and S. S. Ditchkoff. 2006. Density dependent responses in the home range sizes and habitat use of feral pigs (Sus scrofa) on Ft. Benning, Georgia. 2006 National Conference on Wild Pigs.	May 2006
Sparklin, W. D., L. B. Hanson, D. B. Jolley, M. S. Mitchell, and S. S. Ditchkoff. 2005. Density dependent responses in the home range sizes and habitat use of feral pigs (Sus scrofa) on Ft. Benning, Georgia. Annual Conference, The Wildlife Society.	September 2005
Smith, M. L. and M. S. Mitchell. 2006. Projected avian response to forest management at landscape scales. Annual conference, International Association of Landscape Ecologists.	May 2006
Sipe, H A, Sells, S N, Gude, J A, Podruzny, K M, Parks M, Lewis, M S, Metcalf, A L, and Metcalf, E C. 2024. Management strategy evaluation for informing decisions about wildlife management and conservation. Annual Conference of The Wildlife Society, Baltimore, Maryland.	October 2024	This presentation discusses the application of Management Strategy Evaluation for wildlife management, and how Montana is applying it to the challenge of decision making for wolf conservation.
Sharp, N.W., M.S. Mitchell, and J. B. Grand. 2005. Mouse population dynamics operate over multiple scales in a habitat undergoing restoration. Annual Meeting. The Wildlife Society.	October 2006
Sharp, N. W., M. S. Mitchell, and J. B. Grand. 2005. Mouse population dynamics operate over multiple scales in a habitat undergoing restoration. Annual meeting of the The Wildlife Society.	September 2005
Sells, S. N., and C. M. Costello. 2024. Predicted Grizzly Bear Habitat in the Bitterroot Ecosystem. Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society, Butte Montana.	February 2024	This presentation will share research results for simulations of how grizzly bears may use habitat in the Bitterroot Ecosystem, which is one of 2 currently unoccupied grizzly bear recovery areas.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, V. L. Edwards, J. A. Gude, & N. J. Anderson. Submitted. A Decision Analytical Approach to Proactive Management of Pneumonia Epizootics in Bighorn Sheep, National Conference of The Wildlife Society,	September 2015	Managers of bighorn sheep are challenged to manage catastrophic die-offs caused by pneumonia. This work presents a decision model that helps managers identify optimal, proactive decisions they can make unique to the circumstances of individual herds.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, N. J. Anderson, J. M. Ramsey, and J. A. Gude. 2013. Proactive management of pneumonia epizootics in bighorn sheep in Montana-- project update. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2013	Outbreaks of pneumonia among herds of bighorn sheep are increasing, but their causes remain unclear. This work presents an evaluation of factors contributing to disease among bighorns on broad spatial and temporal scales. Results will inform a structured decision making model for proactive management of pneumonia outbreaks.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, N. J. Anderson, J. M. Ramsey, J. A. Gude, P. M. Lukacs, and P. R. Krausman. 2015. 2015. MODELING PROACTIVE DECISIONS TO MANAGE PNEUMONIA EPIZOOTICS IN BIGHORN SHEEP. Annual meeting of the Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2015	Proactive management of disease outbreaks in bighorn sheep is highly difficult because they are hard to predict. This work presents a model for predicting outbreaks and making proactive management decisions based on those predictions.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, J. J. Nowak, P. M. Lukacs, N. J. Anderson, J. M. Ramsey, J. A. Gude, P. R. Krausman. 2014. Modeling Risk of Pneumonia in Bighorn Sheep. Annual meeting, The Wildlife Society.	September 2014	Pneumonia epizootics in bighorn sheep are very difficult to manage proactively without the ability to predict them. We present a model for predicting such outbreaks using data commonly available to managers and demonstrate its usefulness as a decision-making tool.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, J. A. Gude, and N. J. Anderson. 2016. Application of structured decision making to wildlife management in Montana. Annual meeting, MT Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2016	Wildlife managers are still becoming familiar with the process of structured decision making. We illustrate the use of SDM to address proactive management of pneumonia outbreaks, in collaboration with agency partners.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, A. D. Luis, and K. M. Podruzny. 2017. INDIVIDUAL-BASED MODELING OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN UNGULATES AND WOLVES. 12th Deer and Elk Workshop.	May 2017	Distribution and abundance of prey are the foundation for placement of carnivore territories, but both are notoriously difficult to estimate on large scales. We demonstrate the use of spatially explicit, individual-based models to predict the distribution of elk and deer on a landscape in an ecologically credible manner and way useful for predicting territories of wolves.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, A. D. Luis, and K. M. Podruzny. 2017. INDIVIDUAL-BASED MODELING OF INTERACTIONS BETWEEN UNGULATES AND WOLVES. !2th Deer and Elk Workshop.	May 2017	Distribution and abundance of prey species are fundamental to the spatial behaviors of carnivores, but the paucity of data available on prey makes understanding territories of carnivores on biological first principles difficult. We present a means of predicting the distribution and abundance of deer and elk that will facilitate the understanding of wolf territories in the northern Rockies.
Sells, S. N., M. S. Mitchell, A. D. Luis, and K. M. Podruzny. 2017. CARNIVORE TERRITORIALITY: SIMULATING ECONOMIC SELECTION OF TERRITORIES. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	March 2017	Territories of carnivores are widely described but such descriptions are rarely predictive, hampering the ability of managers to understand distribution and abundance. We present novel models of territoriality drawn from from behavioral ecology that will allow managers to better understand populations of wolves.
Sells, S. N., C. Costello, P. Lukacs, L. Roberts, and M. Vinks. 2024. Spatial Behavior of Grizzly Bears in the US Northern Rockies. International Association for Bear Research and Management, Edmonton, AB, Canada.	September 2024	We developed movement models using GPS data from grizzly bears in Montana’s Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem. This allowed us to simulate movements to predict habitat use and connectivity pathways. These predictions can inform proactive conservation efforts such as where to seek conservation easements, conflict prevention, and road mitigations to help recover grizzly bears in western Montana and beyond.
Sells, S. N., C. Costello, P. Lukacs, L. Roberts, and M. Vinks. 2023. Predicting Habitat and Movement Corridors for Grizzly Bears in the US Northern Rockies. 13th International Mammalogical Congress, Anchorage, AK.	July 2023	We employed GPS data from grizzly bears in Montana’s Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem and an integrated step selection function approach to test hypotheses of habitat selection and simulate movements. The predicted habitat and corridors we identified can be targeted for proactive conservation efforts such as conservation easements, conflict prevention, and road mitigations to help recover grizzly bears in western Montana and beyond.
Sells, S. N., C. Costello, P. Lukacs, L. Roberts, and M. Vinks. 2023. Predicted Habitat and Movement Corridors for Grizzly Bears in Western Montana. Montana Chapter Conference of The Wildlife Society	February 2023	We employed GPS data from grizzly bears in Montana’s Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem and an integrated step selection function approach to test hypotheses of habitat selection and simulate movements. The predicted habitat and corridors we identified can be targeted for proactive conservation efforts such as conservation easements, conflict prevention, and road mitigations to help recover grizzly bears in western Montana and beyond.
Sells, S. N., C. Costello, P. Lukacs, L. Roberts, and M. Vinks. 2023. Grizzly Bear Habitat Selection and Predicted Movement Corridors in the US Northern Rockies. Movement Ecology of Animals Gordon Research Seminar	May 2023	We employed GPS data from grizzly bears in Montana’s Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem and an integrated step selection function approach to test hypotheses of habitat selection and simulate movements. The predicted habitat and corridors we identified can be targeted for proactive conservation efforts such as conservation easements, conflict prevention, and road mitigations to help recover grizzly bears in western Montana and beyond.
Sells, S. N., C. Costello, P. Lukacs, L. Roberts, and M. Vinks. 2023. Grizzly Bear Habitat Selection and Predicted Movement Corridors in the US Northern Rockies. Movement Ecology of Animals Gordon Research Conference	May 2023	We employed GPS data from grizzly bears in Montana’s Northern Continental Divide Ecosystem and an integrated step selection function approach to test hypotheses of habitat selection and simulate movements. The predicted habitat and corridors we identified can be targeted for proactive conservation efforts such as conservation easements, conflict prevention, and road mitigations to help recover grizzly bears in western Montana and beyond.
SARAH N. SELLS, MITCHELL, M., PODRUZNY, K., and JUSTIN G. GUDE (2019) Improving Estimates of Wolf Abundance in Montana. TWS 26th Annual Conference Reno, Nevada, Sept. 29 – Oct. 3, 2019.	October 2019	This work will help keep estimates of wolf abundance in Montana calibrated into the future with limited data, which is important because intensive monitoring efforts are no longer sustainable. The model can also be used to predict location, size, shape, and overlap of territories outside of Montana.
S. S. Lichtenberg, S. Thomas, D. Storm, and D. P. Walsh. Real-time quaking-induced conversion for prion detection in contaminated environmental samples. 2023. 4th International Symposium. Denver, Colorado, USA. 5/31/23-6/2/23.	May 2023	Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is unique among prion diseases in that it affects free-ranging host species and prions shed by the host remain infectious, and may contribute to further geographic spread of the disease. We describe here a method for extraction of prions from environmental matrices which are then amenable for detection by the real-time quaking induced conversion (RT-QuIC) assay.
Rich, L., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Using hunter surveys to monitor wolf pack abundance and distribution in Montana. Annual Meeting, The Wildlife Society.	January 2017	XX
Rich, L. N., M. S. Mitchell, C. A. Sime, R. Russell, and J. A. Gude. 2010. Combining hunter surveys and territorial dynamics to monitor wolf pack abundance and distribution in Montana. Annual meeting, Montana chapter of The WIldlife SOciety.	February 2010
Reyes, J. F. M., T. F. Ma, I. P. McGahan, D. J. Storm, D. P. Walsh, and J. Zhu. 2024. Spatiotemporal causal inference with mechanistic ecological models: evaluating targeted culling on chronic wasting disease dynamics in cervids. SIAM Conference on Mathematics of Data Science (MDS24). Atlanta, Georgia, USA. 10/21/24-10/25/24	October 2024	Spatiotemporal causal inference methods are needed to detect the effect of interventions on indirectly measured epidemiological outcomes that go beyond studying spatiotemporal correlations. We develop methods that can be broadly used to study the impact of spatiotemporal interventions and treatment exposures in the epidemiological evolution of infectious diseases that can help to inform future efforts to mitigate public health implications and wildlife disease burden.
Reyes, J. F. M, McGahan, I. P., Ma, T. F., Ballmann, A. E., Walsh, D. P., and Zhu J. 2024. Spatio-temporal dynamic modeling of wildlife disease data. Institute of Mathematical Statistics Asia Pacific Rim Meeting. Melbourne, Australia, January 4-7, 2024.	January 2024	We develop a stochastic extension of the ecological diffusion equation (EDE) and discuss its interpretation and main differences from the deterministic EDE. We then derive non-stationary extensions of the diffusion-based Gaussian Matérn field and show that these extensions enjoy stochastic EDE-like behavior. This approach is particularly useful for analyzing wildlife health data to inform conservation decisions.
Powell, R. A., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Optimality models, cognitive maps, fitness and home ranges (and other jargon). Annual meeting, American Society of Mammalogists	January 2009	XX
Powell, R. A., and M. S. Mitchell. 2005. What is a home range? Invited paper, Kernel methods in space use analysis, Annual Conference, The Wildlife Society.	September 2005
Powell, R. A., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Optimality Models, Cognitive Maps, Fitness & Home Ranges (and other jargon). Annual meeting, American SOciety of Mammalogists.	June 2009	XX
Podruzny, K. M., J. A. Gude, G. R. Pauley, M. S. Mitchell, E. H. Bradley, N. Lance, K. J. Laudon, A. A. Nelson, M. S. Ross, and T. D. Smucker. Predicting abundance of gray wolves in Montana using hunter observations and field monitoring. International Wolf Symposium.	October 2013	This work presents an integrated approach to monitoring wolves according to delisting criteria set by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. Prior to the completion of this research, no means for estimating wolf numbers accurately and with measures of error on a state-wide scale existed.
Piel III, R. B., S. E. Veneziano, E. Nicholson, D. P. Walsh, T. A. Nichols, and D. A. Schneider. 2023. Disparate tissue effects of pre-analytic differential centrifugation and NaPTA precipitation on enhanced detection of CWD prions by RT-QuIC using RAMALT and MRPLN samples from naturally infected WTD. 4th International CWD Symposium, Denver, Colorado, USA. May 31-June 2, 2023.	May 2023	In this study, we use two types of lymphoid tissues from white-tailed deer to compare the standard dilution strategy used in Real Time Quaking Induced Conversion (Rt-QuIC) assays with the low-cost pre-analytic preparatory methods of differential centrifugation and NaPTA precipitation. The results demonstrate tissue-specific differences in the effects of these methods, but each method when correctly applied improved detection sensitivity compared to the standard homogenate dilution.
Oteyza, J.C., J.C. Mouton, T.E. Martin. 2016. Adult survival probability explains parental risk-taking behavior in tropical and temperate songbirds. VI North American Ornithological Conference, Washington, D.C., 16-20 August 2016.	August 2016	Species respond differentially to a dangerous situation, but the evolutionary drivers of this variation have not been directly tested. Based on novel experimental evidence and in agreement with classic life history theory, we found that adult survival probability explains large variation in risk-taking behavior across diverse species and latitudes.
Oteyza, J. C., and T. E. Martin. The effects of nest predation risk on parental investment and reproductive success. (IOC presentation)	August 2014	Effects of nest predation on demography have focused on direct effects, but indirect effects cause by fear-related behavioral shifts have been poorly explored. We examine such effects in tropical birds through experimental presentation of predator sounds.
Northern Rockies Aspen conference – 2009 – Climate change and aspen habitat relative to bird use (invited).	April 2009
Mouton, J. C., and T. E. Martin. 2017. Inter-annual variation in nest predation risk influences spatial associations and fitness outcomes in a cavity nesting bird community	August 2017	Cavities are often a limiting resource for cavity-nesting species, which will compete for cavities and forcing dispersion. However, we show that they also benefit from sharing cavity trees when risk of predation is high, despite competition.
Mouton, J. C., and T. E. Martin. 2016. Plastic responses of parents and offspring to nest predation risk differ across species. VI North American Ornithological Conference, Washington, D.C., 16-20 August 2016.	August 2016	Plastic responses to predation risk differ markedly across species yet the underlying evolutionary factors explaining this variation remain unclear. We experimentally show that parental responses to predation risk that influence critical growth dynamics in offspring differ as a function of nest predation rates, however, the confounding effects of adult mortality rates cannot be excluded.
Mouton, J. C, R. A. Duckworth, and T. E. Martin. Age-specific mortality and avian life history evolution: a role for hormone-mediated maternal effects?	January 2015	Age-specific mortality may influence evolution of risk taking strategies by selecting on hormonal mechanisms. We examined this hypothesis by examining relationships between yolk testosterone and corticosterone concentrations, adult mortality probabilities, and behavioral responses to experimental predator presentations across species of songbirds.
Mitchell, M.S., and R. A. Powell. 2005. Using the kernel estimator to understand the home ranges of black bears. Symposium on kernel methods in space use analysis, Annual Conference	September 2006
Mitchell, M. S., and R. A. Powell. 2005. Using the kernel estimator to understand the home ranges of black bears. Symposium on kernel methods in space use analysis, Annual Conference, The Wildlife Society.	September 2005
Mitchell, M. S., and R. A. Powell. 2005. Using the kernel estimator to understand the home ranges of black bears. Invited paper, Kernel methods in space use analysis, Annual Conference, The Wildlife Society.	September 2005
Mitchell, M. S., Q. Kujala and J. A. Gude. 2012. Results of a Structured Decision Making (SDM) process for controversial archery elk hunting regulations. Annual Meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society, Great Falls, MT.	March 2012
Mitchell, M. S., M. Kauffman, and J. S. Bissonette. 2010. Transboundary research. All hands meeting, Cooperative Research Units.	March 2010
Mitchell, M. S., D. E. Ausband, C. A. Sime, E. E. Bangs, M. Jimenez, C. M. Mack, T. J. Meier, M. S. Nadeau, and D. W. Smith. 2007. Influence of pack size, demography, and human-caused mortality on breeding pairs of wolves in the northern Rocky Mountains. Annual Meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	February 2007
Mitchell, M. S. 2016. 25 years after Ten Years After "Reliable Knowledge": why are we still talking about this? Annual Meeting, The Wildlife Society.	October 2016	Decades after Charles Romesburg published his seminal paper on producing reliable knowledge, the wildlife profession still struggles to provide management with logically rigorous scientific insights. In this presentation, I discuss the logic of science, summarize its limited application in wildlife science, and suggest ways researchers can provide managers with more reliable recommendations, even where statistical inferences are limited.
Mitchell, M. S. 2012. How many Montana wolves are there, really? Sigma Xi Science Cafe, Missoula, MT.	March 2012
Mitchell, M. S. 2010. Making good decisions for conservation using structured decision making. International conference on wildlife research techniques in rugged mountainous Asian landscapes. Ugyen Wangchuck Institute for Conservation and Environment, Bhumtang, Bhutan.	May 2010
Mitchell, M. S. 2009. Panelist: predator/prey open session. North American Moose Conference.	January 2009	XX
Mitchell, M. S. 2009. Finding a moving needle in a haystack: monitoring wolves in the northern Rockies. El Centro de Investigación y Capacitación Río Los Amigos, Peru.	November 2009
Mitchell, M. S. 2008. Panelist: wildlife panel discussion on wolves. Rural Law Symposium, University of Montana School of Law.	January 2009	XX
Mitchell, A.E, T.E. Martin. 2016. The Harsh Weather Hypothesis: A Proximate Mechanism for Slow Post-Natal Development of High Elevation Birds. VI North American Ornithological Conference, Washington, D.C., 16-20 August 2016.	August 2016	Birds living at high elevations commonly have slower life history traits than those at lower elevations, and harsh weather is one mechanism that may be responsible for this variation. Our results show that heated nests cause lower adult brooding and increased nestling provisioning rates, suggesting that low ambient temperatures indeed constrain parental behavior by requiring additional brooding time, thereby reducing provisioning rates, and delaying offspring growth.
Mitchell, A. E., and T. E. Martin. 2019. Patterns and causes of tropical montane life histories: an observational and experimental study in Malaysian Borneo.	June 2019	High elevation species are though to have evolved slow growth and life history strategies. We conduct an experiment to show that these strategies are caused in part by proximate effects of climate in ecological time.
McGahan, I., G. Oh, D. P. Walsh, and J. Zhu. 2024. Forecasting the Spread of White-Nose Syndrome with Ecological Diffusion. Joint Annual Meeting of the Korean Society for Mathematical Biology and the Society for Mathematical Biology. Seoul, Korea. 6/30/2024	June 2024	This presentation will describe a more computationally efficient method for solving the underlying mathematical equations that describe the growth and spread of disease. The method is applied to white-nose syndrome as a case study of a disease of national concern and significant ecological impact.
McGahan, I., F. Mandujano, D. Storm, M. Gilbertson, S. Lichtenberg, J. Powell, D. Walsh, J. Zhu, W.C. Turner. Modeling host behavior and environmental transmission of chronic wasting disease. Annual Conference of Research Workers in Animal Diseases (CRWAD), Chicago, Illinois, USA, January 20-23, 2024.	January 2023	This poster presents the objective of a research project that will quantify the relative contribution of direct and environmental transmission to spread of the ongoing chronic wasting disease epidemic in central Wisconsin.
McCall-Moore, B. S., and M. S. Mitchell. Non-invasive genetic sampling reveals black bear population dynamics driven by changes in food productivity. ANnual meeting, Idaho chapter of The WIldlife Society.	March 2010
McCall, B. S., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Non-invasive genetic sampling reveals black bear population dynamics driven by changes in food productivity. Western Black Bear Workshop.	January 2009	XX
McCall, B. S., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Non-invasive genetic sampling reveals black bear population dynamics driven by changes in food productivity. Annual Meeting, The WIldlife Society.	January 2009	XX
Maternal effects and avian embryonic development. International Ethological Congress, Budapest, Hungary.	August 2005
Martin, T. E., and J. C. Oteyza. Nest predation influences on life history strategies. IOC conference keynote.	August 2014	Nest predation can exert large effects on demography of birds and thereby cause strong selection on demographic traits. We show how it can also interact with adult mortality to influence traits like development and growth rates and parental care.
Martin, T. E., A. J. Boyce, K. Fierro-Calderón, C. E. Armstad, and E. E. Bin Soudi. 2015. Does nest predation explain evolution of enclosed nests?	September 2015	Construction of enclosed nests is more common in the tropics and southern hemisphere and are thought to be favored by higher nest predation. We show that this long-standing hypothesis is not true and that it may be more important for shielding nests from weather.
Martin, T. E., A. Badyaev, C. G. Ghalambor, C. J. Conway. 1996. Parental care and nest predation, Special Symposium: Current Issues in Avian Parental Care. American Ornithologists' Union, Boise, ID.	August 1996
Martin, T. E. – On the importance of understanding temperature influences on embryonic metabolism in offspring quality as measured by immune function. – August 2010 (invited symposium talk). American Society of Physiology (only meets every 4 years)	August 2010
Martin, T. E. Direct and indirect effects of long-term climate variation on bird populations in a high elevation riparian ecosystem. The Wildlife Society Symposium on Climate Change. Monterey, CA September 2009	September 2009
Martin, T. E. 2019. Rain and drought effects on demography of temperate and tropical songbirds.	August 2019	Drought is expected to impact populations. I show that impacts vary as a function of life history strategies with longer-lived species foregoing reproduction to increase survival, whereas shorter-lived species maintain reproduction and suffer increased adult mortality.
Martin, T. E. 2019. On the importance of climate and the nest environment on incubation to chick rearing.	September 2019	Incubation strategies vary extensively among species with major ramifications for embryonic development and chick quality. Incubation behavior reflects evolved strategies among species, but is modified by nest structure and weather.
Martin, T. E. 2019. Effects of long-term environmental change on cavity-nesting bird populations. American Ornithological Society Annual Meeting.	June 2019	Widespread loss of aspen over the long-term can have negative consequences for cavity-nesting bird populations due to loss of preferred nesting sites. However, decline in habitat quality can limit populations independent of nest sites.
Martin, T. E. 2017. On the importance of studying natural history while thinking about evolutionary ecology theory and physiology principles to advance understanding of life history variation. Congress of The Americas, Iguazu, Argentina.	August 2017	Demography of tropical and southern hemisphere bird species differ substantially from north temperate birds and comparative studies provide new insight into the environmental drivers in both regions. Understanding the environmental drivers of demography ultimately is critical to proper conservation measures.
Martin, T. E. Parental care and life history strategies between tropical and temperate birds. IX Neotropical Ornithology Congress (meets every 4 years) – November 2011 – Vancouver, BC (Invited Plenary)	November 2011
Martin, T. E. New hypotheses for life history evolution, with emphasis on tropical birds – XIII Reunión Argentina de Ornitología. Tafi de Valle, Argentina – June, 2009 (Invited Keynote for the conference)	June 2009
Martin, T. E. 2016. Causes and considerations of variation in nestling growth strategies among temperate and tropical songbirds.	August 2016	Offspring growth is thought to have major fitness consequences. However, estimations have been problematic and consideration of environmental determinants are lacking. I propose solutions to better estimation and new hypotheses for variation in growth rates of nestling birds.
Mandujano Reyes, J. F., I. P. McGahan, T. F. Ma, R.E. Russell, D. P. Walsh, and J. Zhu. 2023. Learning complex spatial dynamics of ecological processes with machine learning-guided partial differential equations. NeurIPS, New Orleans, LA,USA 12/10/23-12/16/23	December 2023	Climate change is linked to the emergence of wildlife diseases such as fungal pathogens which can cause the decline or extinction of species. Emerging pathogens often display geographic variability due to landscape heterogeneity. We propose a novel approach to estimate spread of wildlife diseases leveraging prior physical knowledge of ecological systems, using partial differential equations, with flexible1 representations of underlying dynamics, using neural networks.
Loya, T. M., D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, and C. M. Mack. 2008. A novel, automated remote sensing tool for detecting wolves. Annual Meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	February 2008
L. N. Rich, E. Glenn, M. S. Mitchell, R. Russell, J. A. Gude, and C. A. Sime. 2011. Using hunter surveys to estimation wolf abundance. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	February 2011
Ketz, A. C., D. J. Storm, W. C. Turner, and D. P. Walsh. 2023. Progression of a chronic wasting disease epizootic: A spatiotemporal integrated population model. 4th International CWD Symposium. Denver, Colorado, USA. May 31- June 2, 2023.	May 2023	The dynamics of chronic wasting disease (CWD) are driven by spatially and temporally varying processes that operate on multiple scales leading to complicated population effects. We have developed a novel method that provides a rigorous tool for increasing understanding of disease and population dynamics, which is critical to mitigate disease impacts.
Kenneth Loonam, Ausband, Lukacs, Mitchell, Hugh Robinson (2019) Counting Cougars: Density Estimates of Unmarked, Low Density Populations with Camera Traps. TWS 26th Annual Conference Reno, Nevada, Sept. 29 – Oct. 3, 2019.	October 2019	Abundance estimates can inform management policies and are used to address a variety of wildlife research questions, but reliable estimates of abundance can be difficult and expensive to obtain. Obtaining reasonable abundance estimates for cougars from the time and space-to-event models shows that remote cameras may lower the costs of abundance monitoring for low density, difficult to detect species and make monitoring programs using remote camera grids applicable to a broader array of species.
Keever, A. C., M. S. Mitchell, K. M. Podruzny, A. D. Luis, and J. T. Peterson. 2017. Estimating recruitment of wolves with limited data. Annual meeting, The Wildlife Society.	September 2017	Understanding recruitment is particularly important for harvested species because it determines the level of harvest that can be sustained by the population. We developed an integrated population model to use collar, hunter survey, and group count data to estimate recruitment of wolves and found that the model estimated the true parameter values from the simulated data accurately with 10 years of data from 40 group counts and 120 sites with 10 survey occasions per site for occupancy.
Keever, A. C., M. S. Mitchell, K. M. Podruzny, A. D. Luis, and J. T. Peterson. 2017. ESTIMATING RECRUITMENT OF WOLVES WITH LIMITED DATA. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	March 2017	Recovery of wolves in the US has relied heavily on the documentation of recruitment, historically by monitoring the number of breeding pairs. This methodology is outdated and we present a means of estimating recruitment of wolves as part of an adaptive harvest management program.
Katircioglu, S., M. Hunsaker, A. Herbst, S.S. Lichtenberg, D.J. Storm, D.P. Walsh, W.C. Turner. Comparing relative PrP(CWD) loads in soil from deer scrapes and food plots in southern Wisconsin. 4th International Conference on Chronic Wasting Disease	May 2023	Prions causing chronic wasting disease in deer can be transmitted to susceptible hosts via contact with contaminated soils. This study compares prion detection in soils from different sites where deer aggregate, to evaluate if these areas are a risk for prion accumulation and disease transmission.
Justin Gude, Nick DeCesare, Kelly Proffitt, Sarah Sells*, Bob Garrott, Imtiaz Rangwala, Mark Biel, Jessy Coltrane, Julie Cunningham, Tammy Fletcher, Karen Loveless, Rebecca Mowry, Megan O’Reilly, Ryan Rauscher, Mike Thompson. Demographic uncertainty and disease risk drive climate-informed mountain goat management.	November 2023	Climate change is expected to disproportionately affect species occupying alpine ecosystems. Wildlife managers must identify actions to conserve and manage alpine species into the future, while considering other issues and uncertainties. We demonstrate a Structured Decision Making approach to conservation of mountain goats in Montana.
Jolley, D. B., S. S. Ditchkoff, L. B. Hanson, W. D. Sparklin, M. S. Mitchell, J. B. Grand, and R. M. Thornton. 2006. Estimated rates of perpetofauna consumption by a population of feral pigs. 2006 National Conference on Wild Pigs, Mobile, AL	May 2006
Jimenez, B., M. Mitchell, and P. Zager. 2011. Multi-scale effects of forest roads on black bears. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2011
Jimenez, B. S., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Multi-scale effects of roads on black bear habitat selection. Western Black Bear Workshop.	January 2009	XX
Jimenez, B. S., M. S. Mitchell, and P. Zager. 2010. Multi-scale effects of forest roads on black bears. Annual meeting, Idaho Chapter of The WIldlife SOciety.	March 2010
J. Brodie, M. S. Mitchell, et al. 2011. Female elk survival. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society. Missoula, MT.	February 2011
Inzalaco, H.N., M.L.J. Gilbertson, S. Katircioglu, K. Lepard, J. McEarl, A. Bibb, J. Dennison, D. Grove, A. Houston, D.J. Storm, D.P. Walsh, W.C. Turner, S.S. Lichtenberg. Artificial mineral sites that pre-date endemic chronic wasting disease become prion hotspots. 4th International Chronic Wasting Disease Symposium. Denver, Colorado, USA. May 30 – June 2, 2023.	May 2023	Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a highly contagious, fatal neurodegenerative disease caused by infectious prions (PrPCWD) affecting wild and captive cervids. This study investigates the role of historical artificial mineral lick sites as sources of prion aggregation and deer chronic wasting disease risk.
Inzalaco, H.N., E.E. Brandell, S. Wilson, M. Hunsaker, D.R. Stahler, K. Woelfel, D.P. Walsh, D.J. Storm, S.S. Lichtenberg, W.C. Turner. A prion in a poop-stack: detection tools and carnivore-based surveillance of chronic wasting disease. 4th International Chronic Wasting Disease Symposium. Denver, Colorado, USA. May 30 – June 2, 2023.	May 2023	What role scavengers and predators may play in chronic wasting disease epidemiology remains poorly understood. Here we adapt tools for prion detection in a range of carnivore feces, to advance surveillance approaches and management of chronic wasting disease.
Influence of nest predation on habitat selection, community structure and life history strategies. British Ornithologists' Union, Leicester, England (Invited Plenary)	April 2007
Henderson, C., M. S. Mitchell, W. Myers, and J. Nelson. 2013. Linking survival and resource selection by female white-tailed deer with different migration strategies. Tenth Biennial Deer and Elk Workshop. Missoula, MT.	May 2013	Little is known about the ecology of white-tailed deer in eastern Washington. This work will inform managers about the resources important to female white-tailed deer that employ 2 different migratory strategies, allowing managers to more effectively allocate hunting effort for the population.
Henderson, C., M. S. Mitchell, W. Myers, and J. Nelson. 2013. Linking survival and resource selection by female white-tailed deer with different migration strategies. 10th Biennial Western States and Provinces Deer and Elk Workshop.	May 2013	Little is known about how migration and habitat use structure the demography of white-tailed deer in eastern Washington. This work will help inform harvest management for deer in the area, as well as illuminate the biology of a common species at the northwestern limit of its range.
Henderson, C. R., M. S. Mitchell, W. Myers, P. M. Lukacs, and G. Nelson. 2014. Estimating migration probability and survival in female white-tailed deer. Annual meeting, The Wildlife Society.	September 2014	Little is known about the behavior or demography of white-tailed deer in eastern Washington. We used novel methods to understand drivers of migratory behaviors and their effects on survival.
Henderson, C. R., M. S. Mitchell, W. L. Myers, P. M. Lukacs, and G. P. Nelson. 2015. HABITAT QUALITY INFLUENCES MIGRATORY STRATEGY OF FEMALE WHITE TAILED DEER. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2015	White-tailed deer populations often contain both migratory and non-migratory individuals, but little is known about what triggers these behaviors. This work shows that habitat quality affects the decision of an individual to migrate.
Hayes, T.; Peterson, C.; DeCesare, N., Bishop, C., and Mike Mitchell (2019) Mule Deer Habitat Selection of Disturbance in Conifer Forests of Northwest Montana: Effects of Forest Age and Configuration. TWS 26th Annual CONF, Reno, Nevada, 9/29/19-10/3/19.	October 2019	Recent declines in mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) population estimates and hunter harvests have been linked to changes in the availability and distribution of nutritional resources in many western states. Determining the factors driving mule deer use of disturbances can help managers identify potential strategies for land management and to identify treatment sizes and configurations that are accessible and beneficial for mule deer.
Hanson, L. B., J. B. Grand, M. S. Mitchell, D. B. Jolley, W. D. Sparklin, S. S. Ditchkoff, and R. M. Thornton. 2006. Effects of experimental manipulation on demography of feral pig populations at Fort Benning, Georgia. 2006 Wild Pig Conference, Mobile, AL	May 2006
Hammond, C.M., M. S. Mitchell, and G. Bissell. 2008. Estimating territory occupancy, colonization, and extinction rates for common loons in northwest Montana. Annual Meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	February 2008
Habitat selection and fitness in birds. The Wildlife Society (Invited opening talk of symposium).	September 2006
Gude, J. A., M. S. Mitchell, R. Russell, C. A. Sime, E. E. Bangs, L. D. Mech, and R. Ream. 2011. Wolf population dynamics in U.S. northern Rocky Mountains are affected by recruitment and human-caused mortality. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	February 2011
Goerz, J. W., R. B. Harris, J. H. Oyster, and M. S. Mitchell. 2016. Spatial variation in moose calf survival in northeastern Washington. 0th North American Moose Conference/Workshop and 8th International Moose Symposium.	September 2016	The moose population in northeastern Washington is one of few ion the lower 48 that appears to be thriving, but climate change and increased predation have the potential to change that. Our study investigates the roles that selection of thermal refugia and predator density play in neonate survival.
Glenn, E., L. Rich, D. Ausband, M. Mitchell, J. Gude, C. Sime, C. Mack, and P. Zager. 2011. Using hunter survey data to estimate wolf population sizes in the Northern Rocky Mountains. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2011
Gilbertson, M.L.J., A. Ketz, M. Hunsaker, D.P. Walsh, D.J. Storm, W.C. Turner. Seasonal variation in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) habitat selection, encounter locations, and chronic wasting disease transmission potential. 4^th International Chronic Wasting Disease Symposium. Denver, Colorado, USA. May 30 – June 2, 2023.	May 2023	This study quantifies seasonal habitat selection and pairwise encounter rates among 563 white-tailed deer in southwest Wisconsin in a chronic wasting disease (CWD) endemic area. Results suggest that focusing on individual behavior in isolation can underestimate the importance of specific habitat types in the context of animal space use and subsequent transmission risk between individuals.
Fierro-Calderon, K. & T.E. Martin. 2016. Cummulative Probability of Nest Survival Explains Territory Use in Orange-crowned Warblers, Arizona. VI North American Ornithological Conference, Washington, D.C., 16-20 August 2016.	August 2016	Natural selection may favor different habitat selection strategies that allow high- and low-quality individuals to achieve similar fitness.
Ensrud, M. N., D. P. Walsh, E. F. Cassirer, C. P. Lehman and J. A. Jenks. 2023. FURTHER EVIDENCE THAT THE REMOVAL OF MYCOPLASMA OVIPNEUMONIAE CARRIER BIGHORN SHEEP INCREASES LAMB SURVIVAL. South Dakota Chapter of The Wildlife Society. Chamberlain-Oacoma, South Dakota, USA. March 7-10,2023.	March 2023	Pneumonia is a major factor affecting populations of free-ranging bighorn sheep (<i>Ovis canadensis</i>) across western North America. Our study suggested that removing intermittent and chronic carriers of <i>Mycoplasma ovipneumona</i><i>e </i>improved lamb survival and the appeared to have eliminated the pathogen from within our bighorn sheep study herd.
DeVoe, J. K. M. Proffitt, M. S. Mitchell, K. Barker, C. Jourdonnais, and P. Ramsey. 2017. TRADE-OFFS BETWEEN FORAGE AND RISK FOR ELK DURING THE FALL ARCHERY HUNTING SEASON. 12th Deer and Elk Workshop.	May 2017	Migratory patterns for elk are changing in Montana, particularly their use of private lands. We show that female elk trade off the risk of archery harvest on public lands against nutritional availability on private lands during the fall migration.private lands
D. B. Jolley, S. S. Ditchkoff, L. B. Hanson, W. D. Sparklin, J. B. Grand, and M. S. Mitchell. 2005. Reproductive plasticity of wild pigs in response to control efforts. Annual Conference, The Wildlife Society.	September 2006
Correia, J., and M. Mitchell. 2015. Brucellosis in elk: influences in the cattle industry in Montana. International Congress: One World-One Health-One Vision. Sarajevo, Bosnia and Hercegovina.	October 2015	Management of brucellosis in cattle and elk is a critical issue in Montana, with implications for the concept of One World, One Health that is becoming prevalent in Europe. This work presents a summary of the issue developed by a visiting veterinary student from University of Porto, Portugal.
Conway, C. J., and T. E. Martin. 2001. Effects of clutch size on nest attentiveness and incubation efficiency, American Ornithologists' Union Annual Conference, Seattle, WA. 16 Aug 2001.	August 2001
Conway, C. J., and T. E. Martin. 1997. Effects of ambient temperature on avian incubation behavior. American Ornithologists' Union, Minneapolis, MN.	February 1997
Conway, C. J., and T. E. Martin. 1996. Variation in avian nest attentiveness: predation risk, food availability, or climate? The Wildlife Society annual conference, Cincinnati, OH.	September 1996
Conway, C. J., and T. E. Martin. 1995. The value of monitoring nesting success and associated habitat: The BBIRD Program, Symposium: Monitoring Avian Populations. Partners-in-Flight International Conference, Cape May, NJ.	March 1995
Conway, C. J., and T. E. Martin. 1995. Effects of ambient temperature, predation risk, and egg physiological tolerance on avian incubation. American Ornithologists' Union, Cincinnati, OH.	August 1995
Collin J. Peterson, Teagan Hayes, Chad Bishop, Michael S. Mitchell, Nick DeCesare, Mule Deer Resource Selection for Forage and Security in Northwest Montana. TWS 26th Annual Conference Reno, Nevada, Sept. 29 – Oct. 3, 2019.	October 2019	Herbivorous ungulates are confronted with resource use tradeoffs when seeking to maximize high quality foraging opportunities while minimizing the risk of being killed. Our findings further our understanding of the most important limiting factors on mule deer populations in a region where there’s a paucity of knowledge on mule deer behavior and demography.
Climate change consequences for trophic structure and interactions of a high elevation riparian system. American Fisheries Society, San Francisco.	September 2007
Climate change and bird population trajectories. EBIRD (European and North American Integration of Endocrinology and Evolutionary Ecology), Scotland	November 2006
Chandika, R. G., A. Tallon, P. Euclide, C. Ott-Conn J. A. Blanchong, D. P. Walsh -R. DeYoung and E. Latch. 2024. Lessons from optimizing a GT-seq panel. The Wildlife Society Annual Conference. Baltimore, MD, USA. 10/19-10/23/2024.	October 2024	This presentation describes work to expand the availability of genomic tools to white-tailed deer and chronic wasting disease managers. Specifically, it details the steps to develop a genotyping-in-thousands (GT-seq) panel for white-tailed deer. GT-seq is a massively multiplex, 2 step PCR-based method that can be used to genotype thousands of loci from many individuals at a low cost per sample.
Burner, R. C., A. J. Boyce, S. B. Shakya, D. Bernasconi, C. Boer, M. A. Rahman, T. E. Martin, and F. H. Sheldon. 2019. Biotic interactions and temperature gradients contribute to differences in range limits of Bornean mountain birds.	August 2019	Competition played a stronger role in limiting the upper elevational distributions of lowland species, whereas temperature was a stronger factor in determining the lower limits of montane species. Thus, models predicting range shifts under climate change scenarios that include only temperature and precipitation, as is currently most common, will be inadequate.
Brandell, E. E., W. Turner, D. P. Walsh, D. Storm, B. Wojcik and T. Van Deelen. 2023. Evaluating white-tailed deer harvest in Wisconsin and relationships to management practices and chronic wasting disease. 4^th International Chronic Wasting Disease Symposium. Denver, Colorado, USA. May 30 – June 2, 2023.	May 2023	For game species, voluntary harvest by hunters is the dominant management and conservation mechanism in the United States. Quantifying the drivers of harvest is critical for determining the limitations of hunter harvest, which can inform management actions. We separated harvest into its component processes, and analyzed these processes individually to identify factors influencing the number of tags a hunter acquired, and the probability a hunter harvested a deer (i.e., “filled their tag”).
Boyce, A.J., B.O. Wolf, T.E. Martin. 2016. Live fast and die young? Does resting metabolic rate explain variation in adult survival probability within and across latitudes? VI North American Ornithological Conference, Washington, D.C., 16-20 August 2016.	August 2016	Interspecific variation in metabolic rate has long been thought to directly influence lifespan and explain global patterns in adult survival probability, but direct evidence from natural systems is lacking. Here we show that resting metabolic rate explains variation in adult survival probability within but not among latitudes in songbirds.
Boyce, A. J., B. O. Wolf, and T. E. Martin. Resting metabolic rate explains variation in adult survival probability within but not across latitudes	January 2015	We examined the independent influences of resting metabolic rate and latitude on adult survival probability in temperate and tropical bird communities. We found that resting metabolic rate explains variation in adult survival probability within latitudes, but does not explain the longer lives of tropical birds compared to temperate relatives.
Boyce, A. J., B. O. Wolf, and T. E. Martin. Divergent physiological tolerance in two allopatric species of white-eye (zosteropidae) on a tropical elevational gradient. (AOU/COS/SCO meeting abstract)	September 2014	Distributional shifts of species along elevational gradients have been increasingly documented and are thought to be due to differing physiological tolerances. Here, we document these physiological differences for two tropical bird species.
Boyce A. J., S. Shakya, F. H. Sheldon, R. G. Moyle and T. E. Martin. 2019. Phylogenetic and functional structure of avian communities along a tropical elevational gradient.	June 2019	Our data reveal that a diverse set of biotic and abiotic factors underlie elevational variation in community structure and that both biotic and abiotic forces are likely important in structuring communities at low and high elevations.
Borg, N., L. Waits, P. Zager, and M. Mitchell. 2011. Evaluating the genetic distinctiveness of the Salmon River Drainage Bighorn Sheep and their connectivity to neighboring populations. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2011
Borg, N. M. S. Mitchell, L. Waits, F. Cassirer, and P. Zager. 2011. Evaluating the Genetic Distinctiveness of the Salmon River Drainage Bighorn Sheep and their Connectivity to Neighboring Populations. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society. Missoula, MT.	February 2011
Boccadori, V., K. Proffitt, and D. P. Walsh. 2022. Testing the tools: Montana's Highlands bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) project. Northern Wild Sheep and Goat Council Symposium. Jackson Hole, Wyoming. 4/4-4/7/2022.	April 2022	This project is focused on evaluating whether the removal of bighorn sheep chronically shedding <i>Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae</i> will improve herd health and promote population growth.
Blanchong, J., D. Navarro, A. K. Tallon, P. Euclide, C. Ott-Conn, D. P. Walsh, R. W. DeYoung, and E. K. Latch. Development and application of a high-throughput genomic resource to inform white-tailed deer population and disease management. Part 1 of 2. The Wildlife Society Annual Conference. Spokane, WA 11/9/2022.	November 2022	We developed 3 nested SNP tools to support deer and CWD management. These SNP tools offer a standard set of markers that will enable researchers and managers to address important questions related to white-tailed deer and CWD management and serve as a resource for law enforcement. They also offer the opportunity to examine aspects of white-tailed deer ecology and evolutionary history that were previously difficult to address.
Billodeaux, L. B., J. B. Grand, M. S. Mitchell, and J. A. Armstrong. 2005. Occupancy and Detection of Coyotes in Urban and Rural Areas in Western GA. Annual Conference, The Wildlife Society.	September 2005
Bassing, S. B., M. S. Mitchell, D. E. Ausband, P. M. Lukacs, L. P. Waits, and G. Hale. Submitted. DEVELOPING A MONITORING FRAMEWORK TO ESTIMATE WOLF POPULATION DYNAMICS IN SOUTHWEST ALBERTA. Annual meeting, The Wildlife Society.	September 2015	Little is known about how wolves can be monitored effectively at small spatial scales and where they are heavily managed. This work presents information on an effective monitoring approach for these circumstances that not only estimates abundance and distribution of wolves, but also allows for understanding dynamics between and within packs.
Bassing, S. B., M. S. Mitchell, D. E. Ausband, P. M. Lukacs, L. P. Waits, and G. Hale. 2016. Wolf pack distribution in relation to heavy harvest in southwest Alberta. Annual meeting, MT Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2016	Monitoring a heavily harvested population of wolves presents unique challenges. This work shows how a combination of genetic sampling and occupancy modeling provides reliable estimates.
Bassing, S. B., M. S. Mitchell, D. E. Ausband, L. P. Waits, and G. Hale. 2015. DEVELOPING A MONITORING FRAMEWORK TO ESTIMATE WOLF DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE IN SOUTHWEST ALBERTA. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of the Wildlife Society.	February 2015	Wolf populations are notoriously difficult to monitor, particularly where harvest rates and control actions are high. In this work, we present research designed to monitor wolf abundance and distribution in SW Alberta, where high mortality may be compensated by immigration from surrounding regions.
Bassing, S. B., D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, P. Lukacs, M. Schwartz, G. Hale, and L. P. Waits. 2017. VARIABLE EFFECTS OF HARVEST WITHIN AND ACROSS WOLF PACKS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS. Annual meeting, The Wildlife Society.	September 2017	We used noninvasive genetic data collected in central Idaho and southwestern Alberta to identify potential immigrants in a wolf population and assess the response of immigration to harvest. We found little evidence of whole-pack turnover, despite heavy harvest, and immigration did not compensate for harvest mortality in either population, but packs appeared receptive to adopting local dispersers depending on breeding opportunities within packs.
Bassing, S. B., D. E. Ausband, M. S. Mitchell, M. K. Schwartz, L. P. Waits. 2017. Immigration as a Compensatory Mechanism to Offset Harvest Mortality in Harvested Wolf Populations. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	March 2017	There is strong debate among wolf ecologists and managers about the extent to which immigration can compensate for harvest mortality. We show that immigration was not compensatory for 2 heavily harvested populations of wolves.
Bassar, R. D., T. E. Martin, P. Lloyd, M. M. Hart, and R. L. Redmond. 2002. Addressing management and resarch nees with the Breeding Biology Research & Monitoring Database (BBIRD). Partners in Flight management Steering Committee Meeting, Gardiner, MT.	September 2002
Barker, K., M. S. Mitchell, K. M. Proffitt, J. DeVoe, C. Jourdonnais, and P. Ramsey. 2017. SUMMER FORAGE QUALITY DIFFERS FOR MIGRANTS AND RESIDENTS IN A PARTIALLY MIGRATORY POPULATION OF ELK . 12th Deer and Elk Workshop.	May 2017	Drivers of partial migration in elk are poorly understood, which is problematic in Montana where migratory behaviors of elk are changing. We show that nutrition is a driver such that resident elk enjoy higher nutritional content on their summer ranges than migratory elk.
Barker, K., K. M. Proffitt, J. DeVoe, M. S. Mitchell, C. Jourdonnais, and P. Ramsey. 2017. Nutritional and demographic consequences of varying elk migratory behaviors. Biennial meeting of the WAFWA Deer and Elk Workshop.	May 2017	Available nutrition is commonly believed to be the driver behind partial migration in elk, but the mechanisms behind the decision to migrate or not based on diet are not well understood. We show that non-migratory elk had access to significantly higher forage quality than their migratory counterparts; the lower forage quality available to migrants is predicted to result in reduced reproductive success based on published studies linking nutrition with elk demographic rates.
Barker, K., K. M. Proffitt, J. DeVoe, M. S. Mitchell, C. Jourdonnais, and P. Ramsey. 2017. Nutritional and demographic consequences of varying elk migratory behaviors. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	March 2017	Available nutrition is commonly believed to be the driver behind partial migration in elk, but the mechanisms behind the decision to migrate or not based on diet are not well understood. We show that non-migratory elk had access to significantly higher forage quality than their migratory counterparts; the lower forage quality available to migrants is predicted to result in reduced reproductive success based on published studies linking nutrition with elk demographic rates
Ausband, D., and M. Mitchell. 2011. How to trick a wolf: manipulating pack movements with biofencing. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2011
Ausband, D., M. Mitchell, C. Mack, and P. Zager. 2011. Needle in the hay: developing wolf population monitoring techniques. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2011
Ausband, D. E., and M. S. Mitchell. 2009. Developing gray wolf population monitoring techniques. Annual Meeting, The WIldlife Society.	September 2009
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, C. R. Stansbury, J. L. Stenglein, and L. P. Waits. 2016. Effects of harvest on recruitment and wolf pack structure. Annual meeting, Idaho chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2016	Harvest of wolves began shortly after they were delisted in the US norther Rocky Mountains, but significant questions remain about how harvest can affect the demography of this cooperatively breeding species. This work shows that harvest has both direct and indirect effects on
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, C. Mack, M. S. Nadeau, and P. Zager. 2007. Developing a monitoring framework for wolves in Idaho. Annual Meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2008
Ausband, D. E., M. S. Mitchell, C. Mack, M. S. Nadeau, and P. Zager. 2007. Developing a monitoring framework for wolves in Idaho. Annual Meeting, Idaho Chapter, The Wildlife Society.	March 2007
Ausband, D. E., J. Skrivseth and M. S. Mitchell. 2011. How to trick a wolf. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter, The Wildlife Society, Missoula, MT.	February 2011
Ausband, D. E., J. Ruprecht, and M. S. Mitchell. Home alone: influence of individual, pack, and environmental variation on pup attendance in gray wolves. Annual meeting, Montana Chapter of The Wildlife Society.	February 2013	During the breeding season for wolves, inherent trade-offs structure the balance between foraging to provision pups and guarding them from predation. Small packs forage more and guard less compared to large packs; the amount of time spent guarding varies between sex and age classes.
Ausband, D. E., J. Ruprecht, M. S. Mitchell, S. B. Bassing, O. Garten, and P. Zager. 2013. Home alone: influence of individual, pack, and environmental variation on pup attendance behavior in gray wolves. Annual meeting, Idaho chapter, The Wildlife Society. Couer D'Alene, Idaho.	March 2013	Little is known about the behavioral mechanisms behind cooperative breeding in wolves. This study evaluates a part of this process, specifically how wolves within a pack allocate their time between foraging and guarding pups at rendezvous sites.
Allison C. Keever, Michael S. Mitchell, Kevin M. Podruzny, Bob Inman (2019) Drivers of Variation in Recruitment and the Effects on Population Dynamics in Gray Wolves. TWS 26th Annual Conference Reno, Nevada, Sept. 29 – Oct. 3, 2019.	October 2019	Recruitment is an important vital rate affecting population growth of large mammals. Although large mammals are thought to be regulated by extrinsic factors, cooperative breeding may result in intrinsic factors driving population dynamics, specifically recruitment. The majority of studies evaluating the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic factors on recruitment have not been conducted in a social species that cooperatively breeds, and those that have did not explicitly account for the effects of
Alison C. Ketz, Daniel J. Storm, Daniel P. Walsh. 2022. Anomaly detection: A multivariate time series algorithm for predicting changes in real time. The Wildlife Society Conference, Spokane, WA. 11/8/2022	November 2022	We apply an anomaly detection algorithm to predict parturition of white-tailed deer using metrics derived from GPS location data collected in nearly real time, to assist capture of neonates immediately following birth. We demonstrate the use of anomaly detection for other potential novel applications because these methods are designed for detection of changes in multivariate time series data, which are commonly collected in ecological systems.
Reyes, J. F. M., T. F. Ma, I. McGahan, D. J. Storm, D. P. Walsh, and J. Zhu. Physics-informed neural networks for spatio-temporal causal inference in wildlife disease modeling. Midwest Machine Learning Symposium. Dorin Forum, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, USA. May 16-17, 2023.	May 2023	This research demonstrates the use of machine-learning approaches in disease ecology, and demonstrates the power of these methods to leverage physical law models when data is limited. These tools provide a novel means to examine disease process to guide management and surveillance actions.
(2009) Chalfoun, A., and T. Martin. Avian parental care in diverse nest predator environments (poster). Cooper Ornithological Society Annual Meeting, Tucson, AZ.	August 2009
(2007) Chalfoun, A., and T. Martin. Assessments of habitat preferences and quality depend on spatial scale and metrics of fitness. American Ornithologists’ Union Conference, U. WY.	May 2007
(2006) Chalfoun, A., and T. Martin. Habitat preferences and reproductive performance of a sagebrush steppe bird across multiple spatial scales. Jackson Hole Wildlife Symposium.	March 2006
(2005) Chalfoun, A., and T. Martin. Latitudinal variation in avian incubation attentiveness and an experimental test of the food limitation hypothesis. Animal Behavior Society Annual Meeting Snowbird, UT.	October 2005
(2005) Chalfoun, A., and T. Martin. Latitudinal variation in avian incubation attentiveness and an experimental test of the food limitation hypothesis (poster). American Ornithologists’ Union Annual Meeting, University of California-Santa Barbara, CA.	April 2005
(2004) Chalfoun, A., and T. Martin. The influence of spatial context on nest predation risk. Ecological Society of America Annual Meeting, Portland, OR.	April 2004

Theses and Dissertations

Theses and Dissertations	Publication Date
Ton, R. 2016. Ecological and physiological influences on altricial bird growth and development. PhD degree, University of Montana. 110 pages.	May 2016
Sparklin, B. D. 2009. Territoriality and habitat selection of feral pigs on Fort Benning, Georgia, USA. MS Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.	May 2009
Rich, L. N. 2010. An assessment of territory size and the use of hunter surveys for monitoring wolves in Montana. MS Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.	December 2010
Reynolds, M. J. 2006. The effects of forest management on habitat quality for black bears in the southern Appalachian Mountains. PhD Dissertation, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.	August 2006
Oteyza, J. C. 2016. Age-specific mortality and its influence on parental care and offspring behaviors. PhD Degree, University of Montana. 127 pages.	December 2016
Mouton, J. C. 2019. Developmental, ecological, and life history influences on predator-induced plasticity in songbirds. PhD degree, University of Montana. 135 pages.	December 2019
McCall, B. S. 2009. Noninvasive genetic sampling reveals black bear population dynamics driven by changes in food productivity. MS Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.	May 2009
Majewski, A. 2010. Importance of slow embryonic development in offspring and adult immune function. M.S. degree, University of Montana.	May 2010
LaManna, J. A. 2015. Predation risk and vegetation effects on avidan diversity, species turnover, reproduction and fitness. PhD degree, University of Montana. 182 pages	May 2015
Johnson, A. 2010. Habitat influences on avian diversity and reproductive success in western aspen forests. M.S. Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.	December 2010
Jimenez, B. S. 2012. Multiscale effects of forest roads on black bears (Ursus americanus). MS Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula.	April 2012
Hurley, M. 2016. MULE DEER POPULATION DYNAMICS IN SPACE AND TIME: ECOLOGICAL MODELING TOOLS FOR MANAGING UNGULATES.	April 2016
Hanson, L. B. 2006. Demography of feral pig populations at Fort Benning, Georgia. MS Thesis, Auburn University, Auburn, AL.	August 2006
Hammond, C. A. M. 2208. A demographic and landscape analysis for common loons in northwest Montana. MS Thesis, University of Montana, Missoula, MT.	May 2008
Fontaine, J. J. 2006. Ecological consequences of predation risk on phenotypic expression in coexisting species: experimental removal studies. Ph.D. degree, University of Montana.	May 2006
Daniel Barton – Ecological causes of life history variation tested by meta-analysis, comparison, and experimental approaches. Ph.D. dissertation, 2012.	May 2012
Crandall, R. 2014. Identifying environmental factors influencing Golden Eagle presence and reproductive success. M.S. degree, University of Montana.	May 2014
Conway, C. J. 1998. Ecological and physiological constraints on avian incubation behavior and nest-site selection. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of Montana, Missoula, Montana.	May 1998
Cheng, Y-r. 2008. Differential growth of body components among coexisting passerine species in response to nest predation risk. M.S. degree, University of Montana.	May 2008
Chalfoun, A. 2006. The role of spatial context in influencing fitness consequences and selection on habitat choice by a shrub-steppe bird. Ph.D. degree, University of Montana.	May 2006
Calderon, K. F. 2017. Breeding habitat use and fitness consequences in ground-nesting songbirds. PhD degree, University of Montana. 125 pages.	May 2017
Boyce, A. J. 2018. Biotic and abiotic influences on the evolution of elevational range limts and life-history strategies of tropical birds. PhD degree, University of Montana. 131 pages.	May 2018
Borg, N. 2013. Connectivity and Spatial Organization of Rocky Mountain Bighorn Sheep in Idaho. M.S. Thesis, University of Montana.	December 2013

Technical Publications

Technical Publications	Publication Date
Parks, M., K. Podruzny, S. Sells, T. Parks, N. Lance, W. Cole, T. Smucker. S. Bhattacharjee 2023. Montana Gray Wolf Conservation and Management 2022 Annual Report. Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks. Helena, Montana. 53 pages.	June 2023
Haig, S. M., T. E. Martin, C. van Riper, and T. D. Beard. 2013. Pathways for conservation. Science 341: 215.	July 2013
Cook, J.D., K. Flynn, D.A. Bell, M.E. Jaeger, J. Warren, R. Kreiner, J. Payne, J. Andrews, A. Brummond, E.H. Campbell Grant, and S.N. Sells	March 2023

Data or Software Releases

Type	Citation	Publication Date
Software Release	Walsh, D.P., Ballmann, A.E., and Russell, R.E. 2024. Pseudogymnoascus destructans detections by US county 2007-2022: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P1Z9YTHB.	May 2024
Software Release	Walsh DP, Martin J, Robertson EP, Work TM, Kellogg CA, Evans JS, Barker V, Hawthorn A, Aeby G, Paul V, Walker BK, Kiryu Y, Woodley CM, Meyer JL, Rosales SM, Studivan M, Moore JF, Brandt ME, Bruckner A. Code for: Rapid prototyping for quantifying belief weights of competing hypotheses about emergent diseases. Version 1.0.0: U.S. Geological Survey software release https://doi.org/10.5066/P9S9JDVB	2022
Data Release	Sells, S.N., and Costello, C.M. 2024. Predicted connectivity pathways for grizzly bears between the Selkirk and Cabinet-Yaak Ecosystems: spatial data: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P91EWUO8.	May 2024
Data Release	Sells, S.N. and Costello, C.M. 2024. Predicting future grizzly bear habitat use in the Bitterroot Ecosystem under recolonization and reintroduction scenarios: spatial data: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P91EWUO8.	May 2024
Data Release	Sells, S.N. and Costello, C.M. 2024. Predicted grizzly bear movement pathways in Central Montana: spatial data: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P91EWUO8.	July 2023
Data Release	Sells, S. N., Costello, C. M., Lukacs, P. M., van Manen, F. T., Haroldson, M., Kasworm, W., Teisberg, J., Vinks, M. A., and Bjornlie, D. 2023. Predicted grizzly bear habitat use in Western Montana: spatial data: U. S., Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P91EWUO8.	July 2023
Data Release	Sells, S. N., Costello, C. M., Lukacs, P. M., van Manen, F. T., Haroldson, M., Kasworm, W., Teisberg, J., Vinks, M. A., and Bjornlie, D. 2023. Predicted grizzly bear habitat use in Western Montana: spatial data: U. S., Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P91EWUO8.
Data Release	Sells, S. N., Costello, C. M., Lukacs, P. M., Roberts, L. L., and Vinks, M. A. 2023. Predicted connectivity pathways between grizzly bear ecosystems in Western Montana: spatial data: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P91EWUO8.	July 2023
Software Release	Reyes J.F.M., Walsh, D., and Zhu, J. Example code for implementing physics-informed neural networks and generating simulated data. 2024. Version 1.0.0: U.S. Geological Survey software release. Reston, Va. https://doi.org/10.5066/P13VMCUO	October 2023
Data Release	Martin, J., Walsh, D.P., Robertson, E.P., Work, T.M., Kellogg, C.A., Evans, J.S., Barker, V., Hawthorn, A., Aeby, G., Paul, V.J., Walker, B.K., Kiryu, Y., Woodley, C.M., Meyer, J.L., Rosales, S.M., Studivan, M., Moore, J.F., Brandt, M.E., and Bruckner, A., 2023, Expert assessments of hypotheses concerning the etiological agent(s) of Stony Coral Tissue Loss Disease collected during a rapid prototyping project.: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P9DLNEBY.	January 2023
Software Release	Ketz, A.C., D.J. Storm, R.E. Barker, A.D. Apa, C. Oliva-Aviles, and D.P. Walsh. Assimilating ecological theory with empiricism: Using constrained generalized additive models to enhance survival analyses. Version 1.0.0: U.S. Geological Survey software release. Reston, Va. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9ANP64H	January 2023
Software Release	Ketz, A., Storm, D.J., Barker, R., Apa, A.D., Oliva-Aviles, C., and Walsh, D.P., 2022, Data for Assimilating ecological theory with empiricism: Using constrained generalized additive models to enhance survival analyses: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P9ONA9J0.	January 2023
Software Release	Hanley BJ, Mitchell CI, Walter WD, Walsh DP, Jennelle CS, Hollingshead NA, Abbott RC, Kelly JD, Grove DM, Them CE, Ahmed MS, Miller LA, & Schuler KL. 2023. Chronic Wasting Disease Surveillance Optimization Software Version 2 [Software]. 2.0.0. U.S. Geological Survey Software Release. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9W7JVNJ.	March 2023
Data Release	Cook, J. D., D. M. Williams, D. P. Walsh, and T. J. Hefley. 2023. Bayesian composition sampling. U.S. Geological Survey Software Release. https://doi.org/10.5066/P9XMF7FS.	January 2023

Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Units Program: Montana Wildlife Education, Research and Technical Assistance for Managing Our Natural Resources

Montana Wildlife Research Activities

Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Units Program: Montana Wildlife
Education, Research and Technical Assistance for Managing Our Natural Resources