Print Report
M156 Picea glauca - Picea mariana - Betula papyrifera var. kenaica Forest Macrogroup
Type Concept Sentence: This Alaskan-Yukon North American subboreal and boreal forest ranges from western Alaska to southwestern Yukon Territories, dominated by the conifers Picea glauca and Picea mariana, and hardwoods Betula neoalaskana, Betula papyrifera var. kenaica, and Populus tremuloides.
Common (Translated Scientific) Name: White Spruce - Black Spruce - Kenai Birch Forest Macrogroup
Colloquial Name: Alaskan-Yukon North American Boreal Forest
Hierarchy Level: Macrogroup
Type Concept: The Alaskan and Yukon boreal forest is a mixture of upland and low moist forests dominated by the conifers Picea glauca and Picea mariana, and hardwoods Betula neoalaskana, Betula papyrifera var. kenaica, and Populus tremuloides. Larix laricina and Populus balsamifera are occasionally present in the uplands. A gradient exists from drier Populus tremuloides stands on warmer sites, to mesic - most Picea mariana stands, interior mesic Picea glauca mixed hardwood stands and, southward, the moist subboreal transition Picea glauca, Picea x lutzii - mixed hardwood stands. Stands are found in the interior boreal, southern subboreal, and boreal-transition regions of Alaska, some even extending south to the Kenai Peninsula, east into the southern Yukon Territory of Canada. The mountainous terrain consists of a complex of intrusive igneous and metamorphic rocks (granite, gneiss, schist, phyllite, etc.) with flat-lying to gently dipping, sedimentary Paleozoic rocks. The Precambrian Canadian Shield is absent. The Alaska range is very mountainous, whereas northward in the interior, the region is an intermountain plateau, dissected by major river valleys. Till and outwash predominate; lacustrine and fluvial sediments are locally important, with occasional bedrock outcrops. A permafrost layer is largely discontinuous (50-90%), or absent. Disturbances include fire, logging, and insect disease.
Diagnostic Characteristics: Strong diagnostic tree species include Betula papyrifera var. kenaica, moderate diagnostics include Betula neoalaskana, and constants are Picea glauca, Picea mariana, and Populus tremuloides. Tree species that are absent include Betula papyrifera, Pinus contorta, and Abies lasiocarpa. Other distinguishing characteristics may include, in the interior boreal forests, greater constancy for more arctic-northern species, such as the dwarf-shrubs Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium uliginosum, and Betula nana, and in the boreal transition forests, species more typical of coastal maritime forests, such as Menziesia ferruginea, Oplopanax horridus, and Vaccinium ovalifolium.
Rationale for Nominal Species or Physiognomic Features: No Data Available
Classification Comments: Betula papyrifera var. papyrifera may largely be absent from this type, except in southern Yukon. Betula papyrifera var. kenaica becomes dominant westward in the group, and Betula neoalaskana is the predominant birch eastward. Tsuga mertensiana is present in the border between temperate rainforest and the boreal forest.
This boreal forest differs from ~West-Central North American Boreal Forest & Woodland Macrogroup (M496)$$ to the east as follows (K. Baldwin, D. Meidinger, B. Schulz pers. comm. 2014, 2015):
1. M156 does not include either Abies lasiocarpa or Pinus contorta.
2. M156 includes considerable influence of permafrost, especially in upland black spruce forests (although the influence of cold aspects and slopes also is reflected in paludification and moss layer development that contributes to colder soils, thus blurring the distinction between "upland" and "wetland" black spruce. Conversely, white spruce and aspen mostly occupy sites without permafrost. Because this type includes the transition boreal forest (G627), there will be areas of no-permafrost on the Kenai, around Cook Inlet and elsewhere.
3. M156 emphasizes "far northern" species, such as Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula papyrifera var. kenaica, Betula neoalaskana, Betula nana, etc. It may also include a background of Beringean species, although we don''t know how distinctly these species might show up in the forest flora.
4. The concept of ~Alaskan Boreal Dry Aspen Forest Group (G349)$$ occurs in Yukon Territory; dry aspen stands are a classic condition of this macrogroup.
5. At this time there is no separate group for birch forests (and mixes); they are treated within the other groups; pure to mixed birch stands can be treated at the alliance level. This may be changing in the interior, as there are increasing reports that, after fire, more stands are coming back as birch rather than black spruce.
6. ~Southern Alaskan Boreal Mesic Forest Group (G627)$$ includes conditions in the Viereck et al. (1992) unit I.C.1.e. This includes horsetail, devil''s club (maybe boreal), etc. forests on rich seepage or alluvial sites. Similar conditions occur in ~Central Alaskan-Yukon Boreal Mesic Forest Group (G579)$$. This may turn out to be a Populus balsamifera - Picea glauca condition.
This boreal forest differs from ~West-Central North American Boreal Forest & Woodland Macrogroup (M496)$$ to the east as follows (K. Baldwin, D. Meidinger, B. Schulz pers. comm. 2014, 2015):
1. M156 does not include either Abies lasiocarpa or Pinus contorta.
2. M156 includes considerable influence of permafrost, especially in upland black spruce forests (although the influence of cold aspects and slopes also is reflected in paludification and moss layer development that contributes to colder soils, thus blurring the distinction between "upland" and "wetland" black spruce. Conversely, white spruce and aspen mostly occupy sites without permafrost. Because this type includes the transition boreal forest (G627), there will be areas of no-permafrost on the Kenai, around Cook Inlet and elsewhere.
3. M156 emphasizes "far northern" species, such as Empetrum nigrum, Vaccinium uliginosum, Betula papyrifera var. kenaica, Betula neoalaskana, Betula nana, etc. It may also include a background of Beringean species, although we don''t know how distinctly these species might show up in the forest flora.
4. The concept of ~Alaskan Boreal Dry Aspen Forest Group (G349)$$ occurs in Yukon Territory; dry aspen stands are a classic condition of this macrogroup.
5. At this time there is no separate group for birch forests (and mixes); they are treated within the other groups; pure to mixed birch stands can be treated at the alliance level. This may be changing in the interior, as there are increasing reports that, after fire, more stands are coming back as birch rather than black spruce.
6. ~Southern Alaskan Boreal Mesic Forest Group (G627)$$ includes conditions in the Viereck et al. (1992) unit I.C.1.e. This includes horsetail, devil''s club (maybe boreal), etc. forests on rich seepage or alluvial sites. Similar conditions occur in ~Central Alaskan-Yukon Boreal Mesic Forest Group (G579)$$. This may turn out to be a Populus balsamifera - Picea glauca condition.
Similar NVC Types: No Data Available
note: No Data Available
Physiognomy and Structure: This macrogroup is defined by a mosaic of boreal conifer and hardwood forests or woodlands, with low dry shrub or herb species. Canopy cover may range from 40 to 90% cover.
Floristics: The Alaskan and Yukon boreal forest is a mixture of upland and low moist forests dominated by the conifers Picea glauca and Picea mariana, and hardwoods Betula neoalaskana, Betula papyrifera var. kenaica (= Betula kenaica), and Populus tremuloides. Larix laricina and Populus balsamifera are occasionally present in the uplands. Betula papyrifera var. kenaica becomes dominant westward and Betula neoalaskana is the predominant birch eastward (Betula papyrifera var. papyrifera is not expected to be present in this type). In the more southern boreal transition to the maritime forests, the tree layer may be dominated by Picea glauca, Picea x lutzii, or occasionally a mixture of Tsuga mertensiana and Picea x lutzii.
These forests range from dry to moist and are described below: Driest stands within this macrogroup are dominated by Populus tremuloides where the forest understory is typically open, and common species include Chamerion angustifolium, Eurybia sibirica (= Aster sibiricus), Galium boreale, Mertensia paniculata, Rosa acicularis, and Shepherdia canadensis.
Mesic to moist stands are dominated by Picea mariana. Stands may be codominated by Betula neoalaskana, Picea glauca, and Populus tremuloides. Populus tremuloides replaces Betula neoalaskana on drier sites. Feathermosses (Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi) and lichens (such as Cladonia spp.) are common in mature stands.
Mesic interior boreal forests are dominated by combinations of Picea glauca, Betula neoalaskana, and Populus tremuloides, occasionally with Populus balsamifera. Understories may be herb- or shrub-dominated. Common shrub associates may include Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Betula nana, Empetrum nigrum, Ledum palustre ssp. decumbens, Ledum groenlandicum, Linnaea borealis, Rosa acicularis, Shepherdia canadensis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, and Viburnum edule. Common herbaceous species include Athyrium filix-femina, Calamagrostis canadensis, Calamagrostis lapponica, Chamerion angustifolium ssp. angustifolium, Equisetum spp., Equisetum sylvaticum, Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Heracleum maximum, Geocaulon lividum, Mertensia paniculata, and Pyrola spp.
Moist boreal transition forests are dominated by Picea glauca or Picea x lutzii. Betula neoalaskana may be codominant on mid-seral sites, and Tsuga mertensiana may be codominant on late-seral sites where the ranges of Picea x lutzii and Tsuga mertensiana overlap (e.g., Kenai Peninsula, Alaska). Understories are similar to the interior boreal forests but may also contain Menziesia ferruginea, Oplopanax horridus, and Vaccinium ovalifolium.
These forests range from dry to moist and are described below: Driest stands within this macrogroup are dominated by Populus tremuloides where the forest understory is typically open, and common species include Chamerion angustifolium, Eurybia sibirica (= Aster sibiricus), Galium boreale, Mertensia paniculata, Rosa acicularis, and Shepherdia canadensis.
Mesic to moist stands are dominated by Picea mariana. Stands may be codominated by Betula neoalaskana, Picea glauca, and Populus tremuloides. Populus tremuloides replaces Betula neoalaskana on drier sites. Feathermosses (Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium schreberi) and lichens (such as Cladonia spp.) are common in mature stands.
Mesic interior boreal forests are dominated by combinations of Picea glauca, Betula neoalaskana, and Populus tremuloides, occasionally with Populus balsamifera. Understories may be herb- or shrub-dominated. Common shrub associates may include Alnus viridis ssp. sinuata, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Betula nana, Empetrum nigrum, Ledum palustre ssp. decumbens, Ledum groenlandicum, Linnaea borealis, Rosa acicularis, Shepherdia canadensis, Vaccinium uliginosum, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, and Viburnum edule. Common herbaceous species include Athyrium filix-femina, Calamagrostis canadensis, Calamagrostis lapponica, Chamerion angustifolium ssp. angustifolium, Equisetum spp., Equisetum sylvaticum, Gymnocarpium dryopteris, Heracleum maximum, Geocaulon lividum, Mertensia paniculata, and Pyrola spp.
Moist boreal transition forests are dominated by Picea glauca or Picea x lutzii. Betula neoalaskana may be codominant on mid-seral sites, and Tsuga mertensiana may be codominant on late-seral sites where the ranges of Picea x lutzii and Tsuga mertensiana overlap (e.g., Kenai Peninsula, Alaska). Understories are similar to the interior boreal forests but may also contain Menziesia ferruginea, Oplopanax horridus, and Vaccinium ovalifolium.
Dynamics: Fire, insects and permafrost contribute to successional processes and vegetation patterns. Fire is a primary disturbance factor in this region. The mean fire-return intervals (i.e. the average period at which a forest burned) are estimated at about 100 years for black spruce forests in Alaska and western Canada (Johnstone et al. 2010). Alaskan boreal forests have undergone punctuated changes in forest types from deciduous to white spruce to black spruce dominance at regional scales. Nevertheless, the current black spruce period has been resilient to substantial climatic shifts during the past ~5000 years (Lloyd et al. 2006, as cited in Johnstone et al. 2010).
Based on the mean fire-return intervals, old-growth forests might be expected to be relatively uncommon, but because fires largely act independent of stand age, some stands are burned twice within a fire cycle, and others are never burned (Bergeron and Fenton 2012), allowing a certain percentage to become old-growth. More comprehensive data on old-growth conditions in Alaskan forests are needed [see also Mann et al. (2012)].
Insect disturbance can also be substantial. In the boreal transition region, spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) infestations are a major natural disturbance of spruce forests. Spruce beetles typically attack larger, slow-growing spruce, but infestations periodically escalate to epidemic levels when forest and climatic conditions are favorable for beetle expansion. Beetles are then less selective and kill a wider size range. Beetle outbreaks that thin stands and produce a growth release in surviving trees occur on average every 50 years in white and Lutz spruce forests on the Kenai Peninsula. Spruce beetle outbreaks that produce a more substantial thinning occur at longer intervals, with the last two severe infestations occurring in the 1870s-1880s and 1987-present. Over 1.3 million acres of spruce have been killed in the outbreak beginning in 1987.
Based on the mean fire-return intervals, old-growth forests might be expected to be relatively uncommon, but because fires largely act independent of stand age, some stands are burned twice within a fire cycle, and others are never burned (Bergeron and Fenton 2012), allowing a certain percentage to become old-growth. More comprehensive data on old-growth conditions in Alaskan forests are needed [see also Mann et al. (2012)].
Insect disturbance can also be substantial. In the boreal transition region, spruce beetle (Dendroctonus rufipennis) infestations are a major natural disturbance of spruce forests. Spruce beetles typically attack larger, slow-growing spruce, but infestations periodically escalate to epidemic levels when forest and climatic conditions are favorable for beetle expansion. Beetles are then less selective and kill a wider size range. Beetle outbreaks that thin stands and produce a growth release in surviving trees occur on average every 50 years in white and Lutz spruce forests on the Kenai Peninsula. Spruce beetle outbreaks that produce a more substantial thinning occur at longer intervals, with the last two severe infestations occurring in the 1870s-1880s and 1987-present. Over 1.3 million acres of spruce have been killed in the outbreak beginning in 1987.
Environmental Description: Local environment: This macrogroup occurs on upland hillslopes, sideslopes, toeslopes, and inactive terraces and inactive alluvial deposits on well-drained soils derived from glacial deposits, loess, colluvium, or residual soils. It can occur from alpine to low elevations on south-facing slopes and windswept bluffs and ridges or on north-facing slopes in boreal and sub-boreal Alaska. Substrates are steep, unstable, dry to moist mineral soils that are typically excessively well- to well-drained and develop on glacial, loess, or fluvial deposits or residual material. Rocky outcrops are common. Permafrost is absent or occurs in isolated patches.
Climate: Climate is cold-boreal with typically very cold winters of 7-9 months, allowing persistence of snow cover during all but the brief, relatively cool summer season. Temperature extremes range from -70° to 35°C. Annual precipitation varies from 25-30 cm. Physiological processes are often temperature controlled and temperature-limited, though soil drought and waterlogging play important roles at certain sites, as does aspect, with north-facing slopes receiving less solar inputs than south-facing slopes (Elliott-Fisk 2000, Johnstone et al. 2010).
Geology and Soils: The mountainous terrain consists of a complex of intrusive igneous and metamorphic rocks (granite, gneiss, schist, phyllite, etc.) with flat-lying to gently dipping, sedimentary Paleozoic rocks. The Precambrian Canadian Shield is absent. The Alaska range is very mountainous, whereas northward in the interior, the region is an intermountain plateau, dissected by major river valleys. Till and outwash predominate; lacustrine and fluvial sediments are locally important, with occasional bedrock outcrops. Silt caps developed from wind-blow loess intergrade with soils developed from the underlying, mostly schist bedrock. Glaciation was extensive from the Cordilleran and western edges of the Laurentide icesheets, but there were some ice free areas in the Richardson and Mackenzie Mountains. Soils are podzols (Canadian system) / Spodosols (U.S. system), Regosols/Entisols, and Fibrisols/Histosols. A permafrost layer is largely discontinuous (50-90%) (Elliott-Fisk 2000, Johnstone et al. 2010) or absent. Peat soils (>40 cm) are largely absent.
Climate: Climate is cold-boreal with typically very cold winters of 7-9 months, allowing persistence of snow cover during all but the brief, relatively cool summer season. Temperature extremes range from -70° to 35°C. Annual precipitation varies from 25-30 cm. Physiological processes are often temperature controlled and temperature-limited, though soil drought and waterlogging play important roles at certain sites, as does aspect, with north-facing slopes receiving less solar inputs than south-facing slopes (Elliott-Fisk 2000, Johnstone et al. 2010).
Geology and Soils: The mountainous terrain consists of a complex of intrusive igneous and metamorphic rocks (granite, gneiss, schist, phyllite, etc.) with flat-lying to gently dipping, sedimentary Paleozoic rocks. The Precambrian Canadian Shield is absent. The Alaska range is very mountainous, whereas northward in the interior, the region is an intermountain plateau, dissected by major river valleys. Till and outwash predominate; lacustrine and fluvial sediments are locally important, with occasional bedrock outcrops. Silt caps developed from wind-blow loess intergrade with soils developed from the underlying, mostly schist bedrock. Glaciation was extensive from the Cordilleran and western edges of the Laurentide icesheets, but there were some ice free areas in the Richardson and Mackenzie Mountains. Soils are podzols (Canadian system) / Spodosols (U.S. system), Regosols/Entisols, and Fibrisols/Histosols. A permafrost layer is largely discontinuous (50-90%) (Elliott-Fisk 2000, Johnstone et al. 2010) or absent. Peat soils (>40 cm) are largely absent.
Geographic Range: This macrogroup is found in the boreal and boreal transition (low-elevation through alpine) regions of Alaska, east into the southern Yukon Territories of Canada.
Nations: CA,US
States/Provinces: AB?, AK, BC, NT?, SK?, YT
Plot Analysis Summary:
http://vegbank.org/natureserve/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.860496
Confidence Level: Moderate
Confidence Level Comments: No Data Available
Grank: GNR
Greasons: No Data Available
| Type | Name | Database Code | Classification Code |
|---|---|---|---|
| Class | 1 Forest & Woodland Class | C01 | 1 |
| Subclass | 1.B Temperate & Boreal Forest & Woodland Subclass | S15 | 1.B |
| Formation | 1.B.4 Boreal Forest & Woodland Formation | F001 | 1.B.4 |
| Division | 1.B.4.Na North American Boreal Forest & Woodland Division | D014 | 1.B.4.Na |
| Macrogroup | 1.B.4.Na.3 White Spruce - Black Spruce - Kenai Birch Forest Macrogroup | M156 | 1.B.4.Na.3 |
| Group | 1.B.4.Na.3.a Quaking Aspen Alaskan Boreal Dry Forest Group | G349 | 1.B.4.Na.3.a |
| Group | 1.B.4.Na.3.d White Spruce - Resin Birch Forest Group | G579 | 1.B.4.Na.3.d |
| Group | 1.B.4.Na.3.f White Spruce - Resin Birch - Lutz Spruce Forest Group | G627 | 1.B.4.Na.3.f |
| Group | 1.B.4.Na.3.g White Spruce - Black Spruce Central Montane Woodland Group | G856 | 1.B.4.Na.3.g |
| Group | 1.B.4.Na.3.h White Spruce - Black Spruce Boreal Montane Woodland Group | G857 | 1.B.4.Na.3.h |
Concept Lineage: No Data Available
Predecessors: No Data Available
Obsolete Names: No Data Available
Obsolete Parents: No Data Available
Synonomy: = Arctostaphylo rubrae-Piceetalia glaucae (Peinado et al. 1998) [The authors concept is basically equal to this concept, but may extend further east to the western slope of the Rockies.]
= Ledo decumbentis-Piceion marianae (Rivas-Martínez et al. 1999a) [The authors treat the Alaska-Yukon forest as one alliance that is part of a single North American boreal forests Order Gaultherio-Piceetalia in their Braun-Blanquet classification. But See Rivas-Martinez et al (1999b).]
= Ledo decumbentis-Picetalia marinae (Rivas-Martínez et al. 1999b) [The authors treat the Alaska-Yukon forest as one Order (presumably) when they raised the North American boreal forest to a Class level, Linnaeo americanae-Piceetea marianae. in their Braun-Blanquet classification. See also Rivas-Martinez et al (1999a).]
= Ledo decumbentis-Piceion marianae (Rivas-Martínez et al. 1999a) [The authors treat the Alaska-Yukon forest as one alliance that is part of a single North American boreal forests Order Gaultherio-Piceetalia in their Braun-Blanquet classification. But See Rivas-Martinez et al (1999b).]
= Ledo decumbentis-Picetalia marinae (Rivas-Martínez et al. 1999b) [The authors treat the Alaska-Yukon forest as one Order (presumably) when they raised the North American boreal forest to a Class level, Linnaeo americanae-Piceetea marianae. in their Braun-Blanquet classification. See also Rivas-Martinez et al (1999a).]
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