Print Report
M005 Avicennia germinans - Laguncularia racemosa - Rhizophora mangle Macrogroup
Type Concept Sentence: This mangrove vegetation occurs in saline wetlands along the southwest coast of Florida, the Gulf Coast of Texas, and Mexico, the Caribbean Islands, the Caribbean coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America. It is dominated by Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle, growing with few other associate species in communities that vary depending upon tidal, hydrologic and topographic conditions.
Common (Translated Scientific) Name: Black Mangrove - White Mangrove - Red Mangrove Macrogroup
Colloquial Name: Western Atlantic & Caribbean Mangrove
Hierarchy Level: Macrogroup
Type Concept: The mangrove vegetation of this macrogroup forms coastal saline swamps, dominated by Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and Rhizophora mangle varying in dominance and structure depending upon tidal, hydrologic and topographic conditions. It is found along the southwest coast of Florida, the Gulf Coast of Texas, Mexico, Caribbean coast of Central America, the Caribbean Islands, and the northern coast of South America. Relatively few mangrove species form these forests and they are all of tropical affinity. Common saltmarsh species are associated in the understory layer, especially in transitional areas to salt marshes and in open tree canopy conditions. Among these halophytic species are several saltmarsh grasses (Juncus, Sporobolus, Monanthochloe, Distichlis) and succulent herbs (Salicornia, Sesuvium, Batis). Mangrove forests occur in three main geophysical settings that define their structure and composition: fringe, basin, and riverine. Fringe mangroves occur in close proximity to the ocean, are dominated by Rhizophora mangle, and may have leeward zones dominated by Avicennia germinans or Laguncularia racemosa. These tidal forests can reach 20 m (66 feet) high. Stands occur in frost-free zones, on soils that are permanently saturated with brackish water and which become inundated during high tides. The brackish environment tends to limit competition from other species. Basin mangroves occur in flats or lagoons that form around inland basins and depressions, which may have water of various salinities, and in tidal brackish estuary channels; the latter typically lack Rhizophora mangle. Influences from tides decrease further inland. The basin mangrove also includes short, tidal mangrove forests on seasonally flooded peat soils of interior depressions in the Florida Keys and southern peninsular Florida. The tree canopy of the basin mangrove communities is closed, usually 3-12 m high, and is codominated by Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and/or Conocarpus erectus. Rhizophora mangle can occur but is not dominant. Avicennia is the only mangrove genus that can stand cold temperatures and occasional frosts thus reaching up to 30° N latitude on the coast of Florida to Texas. Riverine mangrove, the third setting, occurs farther south in the floodplains and along embankments of tidal creeks and rivers, with daily tides. Riverine forests have higher levels of productivity than the other mangrove types as a result of increased nutrient availability, litter fall, and tidal flushing. All three species are present and the canopy layer can reach heights of 18 to 20 m (59-66 feet). Finally, one of the most distinctive traits of Caribbean mangroves is the presence of mangrove forests on large flooded limestone plains, such as the Florida Everglades or the mangrove swamps of Belize and Quintana Roo, in Mexico. These communities are composed by dwarf trees of red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) accompanied by a characteristic community with golden ferns (Acrostichum aureum) and the myrmecophilous orchid Schomburgkia tibicinis.
Diagnostic Characteristics: Mangrove species form tidal communities of various physiognomies depending on the geomorphic and hydrological processes that characterize the stand. All dominants are woody species which can attain heights of 5-20 m depending on the substrate, climate and extent of disturbance. All are tolerant of constant saturation and high levels of salinity. Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans, and Laguncularia racemosa are diagnostic species which can co-occur, but usually one dominates over the others based on structural or functional features that confer advantages in particular settings. In addition, Conocarpus erectus, another mangrove species, can dominate in areas seldom inundated by tidal waters in the rocky, dry habitats associated with the Florida Keys archipelago. No other mangrove species are present in the type. These dominants are accompanied by saltmarsh species Salicornia, Sesuvium, Batis, Spartina, Juncus, and Distichlis.
Rationale for Nominal Species or Physiognomic Features: No Data Available
Classification Comments: Two broad groups of mangrove vegetation in the Western Atlantic and Caribbean can be recognized: fringe (including both coastal and riverine) and basin mangrove (including hammock mangrove) (Lugo et al. 1988). The decision to include coastal and riverine mangrove forests within the fringe mangrove group needs further review of floristic distinctions, given differences in water salinity and tidal/wave energy between both settings. Peinado et al. (1995b) restrict this macrogroup to the tropical regions, excluding Louisiana. Although mangroves (especially Avicennia germinans) occur in Louisiana and the Florida panhandle, they are better treated there as part of Gulf Coast salt marshes.
Similar NVC Types: No Data Available
note: No Data Available
Physiognomy and Structure: These are evergreen, tidal swamps, dominated by mangrove species of variable heights. Mangrove trees in south Florida can be up to 60 cm (2 feet) in diameter and 150 years old. But there are also mangrove forests 10-20 m tall. Canopy heights and density depend upon climate, topography, salinity and substrate type, with stunted, shrub-like growth forms shorter than 1.5 m on rocky substrates or at the northern edge of their range, in areas subjected periodically to freezing temperatures (Medina 1999, Lugo et al. 2007). Avicennia germinans has distinctive horizontal cable roots that radiate from the tree with short, vertically erect aerating branches (pneumatophores) extending 2 to 20 cm (0.8 to 7.9 inches) above the substrate. The trees of Rhizophora mangle have extensive prop roots extending from the trunk and lower branches to the soil. The prop roots are important adaptations to living in anaerobic substrates and in providing gas exchange, anchoring system, and absorbing ability. Undisturbed mature mangrove communities vary from a high, dense, continuous canopy to a low, open canopy (Tomlinson 1986b, E. Helmer pers. comm. 2014 ).
Floristics: This macrogroup includes mangrove forests dominated or codominated by Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, Rhizophora mangle, and/or Conocarpus erectus. The standard zonation of mangroves consists of Rhizophora mangle in the lower and middle intertidal zone, Avicennia germinans in the upper intertidal areas that are occasionally flooded, and Laguncularia racemosa in patches on higher elevations that are less frequently flooded. Conocarpus erectus is located further inland in areas that are within the limits of the highest tides (Tomlinson 1986). Landward zones exhibit various patterns though, where vegetation may be composed of a mixture of co-occurring mangrove species or form monospecific stands (Barbour and Billings 2000). Dense mangrove forests do not typically have understory plant associations, except for mangrove seedlings (FNAI 1990). However, under open or irregular canopy other herbaceous salt-tolerant species may also be present such as Batis maritima, Distichlis spicata, Salicornia depressa (= Salicornia virginica), and Sesuvium portulacastrum. The mangrove forests on large flooded limestone plains are composed of dwarf trees of Rhizophora mangle accompanied by a characteristic community with Acrostichum aureum and the myrmecophilous orchid Schomburgkia tibicinis (E. Ezcurra pers. comm. 2014 ).
Dynamics: Disturbance in mangrove forests may be caused by large-scale events such as hurricanes, frost damage or clearcutting, but also by small-scale events such as attack by wood-boring beetles or lightning, causing mangrove trees to die in small areas around lightning strikes. The relative importance of these different types of disturbance varies with geography, with some localities more often subjected to the impact of hurricanes or lightning. Hurricane Andrew in 1992 resulted in large areas of mangrove being knocked down by wind. The regeneration of these mangroves since 1992 has been studied (Smith et al. 2009). Recovery from large-scale disturbance may be slow and may vary depending on species composition and intensity of stress factors subsequent to the disturbance event, with increases in solar exposure, soil temperature and/or salinity capable of inhibiting regeneration (McKee and Feller 1994 in Barbour and Billing 2000, Smith et al. 2009).
Mangroves are considered pioneer species because of their ability to establish on otherwise unvegetated substrates. Once individuals begin to colonize a disturbed area, even-aged stands are established with little variation in the structure because new development of successive colonizers is arrested by the closed canopy. On shorter time scales, the pulses of the tides and freshwater runoff are very important factors in the dynamics of mangroves because these control the rates of sedimentation and vertical accretion and thus determine their intertidal position. The distribution of the different mangrove species and the mangrove community can experience fluctuations in habitat type and species composition as a result of changes affecting the hydrologic patterns.
Mangroves are considered pioneer species because of their ability to establish on otherwise unvegetated substrates. Once individuals begin to colonize a disturbed area, even-aged stands are established with little variation in the structure because new development of successive colonizers is arrested by the closed canopy. On shorter time scales, the pulses of the tides and freshwater runoff are very important factors in the dynamics of mangroves because these control the rates of sedimentation and vertical accretion and thus determine their intertidal position. The distribution of the different mangrove species and the mangrove community can experience fluctuations in habitat type and species composition as a result of changes affecting the hydrologic patterns.
Environmental Description: Mangrove forests occur in three main geophysical settings that define their structure and composition: fringe, basin, and riverine. Fringe mangroves occur in close proximity to the ocean, are dominated by Rhizophora mangle, and may have leeward zones dominated by Avicennia germinans or Laguncularia racemosa. These tidal forests can reach 20 m high (66 feet). The brackish environment tends to limit competition from other species. Basin mangroves occur in flats or lagoons that form around inland basins and depressions and which may have water of various salinities, and in tidal brackish estuary channels; the latter typically lacking Rhizophora mangle. Influences from tides decrease further inland. The tree canopy of the basin mangrove communities is closed, usually 3-12 m high, and is co- dominated by Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa, and/or Conocarpus erectus. Rhizophora mangle can occur but is not dominant.
Climate: Mangroves are essentially tropical species that occur only infrequently in areas where the average annual temperature is below 19° C; fluctuations greater than 10° C and short-duration freezes are detrimental to all species. As frost frequency increases, species substitutions occur; Avicennia germinans move to the fringe, and they become scrubby. Populations of Rhizophora mangle and Laguncularia racemosa reach approximately 29° N latitude on both coasts of Florida (Rehm 1976, Odum et al. 1982). However, the northern limits of mangrove species fluctuate due to short-term climatic swings making exact delineations impossible.
Soil/substrate: Mangroves can grow on many different types of substrates and can alter their substrate through peat formation and sedimentation. Mangroves are found on fine inorganic muds, muds with high organic content, peat, sand, rock, coral, oysters, and some man-made surfaces if there are sufficient crevices for root attachment. Black mangroves grow best in soils of high salinity, red mangroves grow best in areas of estuarine salinity with regular flushing, and white mangroves grow best in areas with freshwater input on sandy soils (FNAI 1990). Red, black, and white mangroves can grow in completely anaerobic soils (Lee 1969). Mangroves grow better in areas of low wave-energy shorelines, river deltas, and floodplains with depositional environments (Odum et al. 1982). Fluctuating tidal waters are important for transporting nutrients, controlling soil salinities, and dispersing propagules, but high wave energy prevents establishment and may destroy their shallow root systems (Odum and McIvor 1990). Basin mangrove forests occur in depressions along the coast and further inland that collect precipitation and sheetflow, that are tidally influenced and can attain heights of 15 m (49 feet). Mangroves species sometimes sort along salinity gradients, with Rhizophora limited to salinities below 60-65 ppt, while Avicennia and Laguncularia tolerate levels above 80-95 ppt [see references in Odum and McIvor (1990)]. Elsewhere, including Mexico and Puerto Rico, Laguncularia racemosa can grow at a wide range of salinity, reaching its greater heights where salinity is very low (A.E. Lugo pers. comm. 2011). Riverine mangroves have higher levels of productivity than the other mangrove types as a result of increased nutrient availability, litter fall, and tidal flushing. All three species are present and the canopy layer can reach heights of 18 to 20 m. Mangroves can grow on many different types of substrates and can alter their substrate through peat formation and sedimentation. Mangroves are found on fine inorganic muds, muds with high organic content, peat, sand, rock, coral, oysters, and some man-made surfaces if there are sufficient crevices for root attachment.
One of the most distinctive traits of Caribbean mangroves is the presence of mangrove forests on large flooded limestone plains, such as the Florida Everglades or the mangrove swamps of Belize and Quintana Roo, in Mexico. Because coastal karst substrates occur on the Caribbean but not on the Pacific side of the Americas, this formation is very specific to the Caribbean, and presents a number of very unique features. The Rhizophora trees are stunted because the excess calcium limits the intake of phosphorus by the plants. The accompanying community is quite unique, as these mangroves often grow in almost completely freshwater (E. Ezcurra pers. comm. 2014).
Climate: Mangroves are essentially tropical species that occur only infrequently in areas where the average annual temperature is below 19° C; fluctuations greater than 10° C and short-duration freezes are detrimental to all species. As frost frequency increases, species substitutions occur; Avicennia germinans move to the fringe, and they become scrubby. Populations of Rhizophora mangle and Laguncularia racemosa reach approximately 29° N latitude on both coasts of Florida (Rehm 1976, Odum et al. 1982). However, the northern limits of mangrove species fluctuate due to short-term climatic swings making exact delineations impossible.
Soil/substrate: Mangroves can grow on many different types of substrates and can alter their substrate through peat formation and sedimentation. Mangroves are found on fine inorganic muds, muds with high organic content, peat, sand, rock, coral, oysters, and some man-made surfaces if there are sufficient crevices for root attachment. Black mangroves grow best in soils of high salinity, red mangroves grow best in areas of estuarine salinity with regular flushing, and white mangroves grow best in areas with freshwater input on sandy soils (FNAI 1990). Red, black, and white mangroves can grow in completely anaerobic soils (Lee 1969). Mangroves grow better in areas of low wave-energy shorelines, river deltas, and floodplains with depositional environments (Odum et al. 1982). Fluctuating tidal waters are important for transporting nutrients, controlling soil salinities, and dispersing propagules, but high wave energy prevents establishment and may destroy their shallow root systems (Odum and McIvor 1990). Basin mangrove forests occur in depressions along the coast and further inland that collect precipitation and sheetflow, that are tidally influenced and can attain heights of 15 m (49 feet). Mangroves species sometimes sort along salinity gradients, with Rhizophora limited to salinities below 60-65 ppt, while Avicennia and Laguncularia tolerate levels above 80-95 ppt [see references in Odum and McIvor (1990)]. Elsewhere, including Mexico and Puerto Rico, Laguncularia racemosa can grow at a wide range of salinity, reaching its greater heights where salinity is very low (A.E. Lugo pers. comm. 2011). Riverine mangroves have higher levels of productivity than the other mangrove types as a result of increased nutrient availability, litter fall, and tidal flushing. All three species are present and the canopy layer can reach heights of 18 to 20 m. Mangroves can grow on many different types of substrates and can alter their substrate through peat formation and sedimentation. Mangroves are found on fine inorganic muds, muds with high organic content, peat, sand, rock, coral, oysters, and some man-made surfaces if there are sufficient crevices for root attachment.
One of the most distinctive traits of Caribbean mangroves is the presence of mangrove forests on large flooded limestone plains, such as the Florida Everglades or the mangrove swamps of Belize and Quintana Roo, in Mexico. Because coastal karst substrates occur on the Caribbean but not on the Pacific side of the Americas, this formation is very specific to the Caribbean, and presents a number of very unique features. The Rhizophora trees are stunted because the excess calcium limits the intake of phosphorus by the plants. The accompanying community is quite unique, as these mangroves often grow in almost completely freshwater (E. Ezcurra pers. comm. 2014).
Geographic Range: This mangrove vegetation occurs in saline wetlands along the southwest coast of Florida, the Gulf Coast of Louisiana, Texas, and Mexico, the Caribbean islands, the Caribbean coast of Central America and the northern coast of South America.
Nations: BR,BS,BZ,CO,CR,CU,GF,GT,GY,HN,MQ,MX,NI,PA,PR,SR,US,VE,XC
States/Provinces: FL, LA?, TX
Plot Analysis Summary:
http://vegbank.org/natureserve/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.838396
Confidence Level: High
Confidence Level Comments: No Data Available
Grank: GNR
Greasons: No Data Available
| Type | Name | Database Code | Classification Code |
|---|---|---|---|
| Class | 1 Forest & Woodland Class | C01 | 1 |
| Subclass | 1.A Tropical Forest & Woodland Subclass | S17 | 1.A |
| Formation | 1.A.5 Mangrove Formation | F006 | 1.A.5 |
| Division | 1.A.5.Ua Atlantic-Caribbean & East Pacific Mangrove Division | D004 | 1.A.5.Ua |
| Macrogroup | 1.A.5.Ua.3 Black Mangrove - White Mangrove - Red Mangrove Macrogroup | M005 | 1.A.5.Ua.3 |
| Group | 1.A.5.Ua.3.a Black Mangrove - White Mangrove Forest Group | G003 | 1.A.5.Ua.3.a |
| Group | 1.A.5.Ua.3.b Red Mangrove Forest Group | G004 | 1.A.5.Ua.3.b |
Concept Lineage: No Data Available
Predecessors: No Data Available
Obsolete Names: No Data Available
Obsolete Parents: No Data Available
Synonomy: = Rhizophoro mangle-Laguncularietea racemosae (Peinado et al. 1995b)
= Mangrove Swamp (Odum et al. 1982)
= Tidal Swamp (FNAI 1990)
= Mangrove Swamp (Odum et al. 1982)
= Tidal Swamp (FNAI 1990)
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